Bicknell’s thrush (Catharus bicknelli): proposed recovery strategy 2016

Species at Risk Act
Recovery Strategy Series

Bicknell’s Thrush

Photo of Bicknell’s Thrus
Photo: © Yves Aubry, 2016

Table of contents

List of figures

  • Figure 1. Bicknell’s Thrush breeding range in Canada and the United States, in green (adapted from Lambert et al. 2005; Hart et al. in prep.; and unpublished data of Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Canadian Wildlife Service).
  • Figure 2. Potential wintering area of the Bicknell’s Thrush in the Greater Antilles, in green. The black triangles indicate the known observation sites of the species (adapted from McFarland et al. 2013)

List of tables

  • Table 1. Subnational conservation status ranks (S-ranks) for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada and the United States (NatureServe 2013)
  • Table 2. Threat assessment table
  • Table 3. Recovery planning table
  • Table 4. Schedule of studies to identify critical habitat
  • Table 5. Examples of activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat

Document Information

Recovery Strategy for the Bicknell’s Thrush (Catharus bicknelli) in Canada - 2016 [Proposed]

Photo of cover

Recommended citation:

Environment and Climate Change Canada. 2016. Recovery Strategy for the Bicknell’s Thrush (Catharus bicknelli) in Canada [Proposed], Species at Risk Recovery Strategy Series, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ottawa, viii + 72 pp.

For copies of the recovery strategy, or for additional information on species at risk, including COSEWIC Status Reports, residence descriptions, action plans, and other related recovery documents, please visit the Species at Risk Public Registry.

Cover illustration: Yves Aubry ©

Également disponible en français sous le titre
« Programme de rétablissement de la Grive de Bicknell (Catharus bicknelli) au Canada [Proposition] »

Content (excluding the illustrations) may be used without permission, with appropriate credit to the source.

Preface

The federal, provincial, and territorial government signatories under the Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk agreed to establish complementary legislation and programs that provide for effective protection of species at risk throughout Canada. Under the Species at Risk Act (S.C. 2002, c. 29) (SARA), the federal competent ministers are responsible for the preparation of recovery strategies for listed Extirpated, Endangered, and Threatened species and are required to report on progress within five years after the publication of the final document on the SAR Public Registry.

The Minister of Environment and Climate Change and Minister responsible for the Parks Canada Agency is the competent minister under SARA for the Bicknell’s Thrush and has prepared this recovery strategy, as per section 37 of SARA. To the extent possible, it has been prepared in cooperation with the Quebec Department of Forests, Wildlife and Parks, the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources, and the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources, as per section 39(1) of SARA.

Success in the recovery of this species depends on the commitment and cooperation of many different constituencies that will be involved in implementing the directions set out in this strategy and will not be achieved by Environment and Climate Change Canada, the Parks Canada Agency, or any other jurisdiction alone. All Canadians are invited to join in supporting and implementing this strategy for the benefit of the Bicknell’s Thrush and Canadian society as a whole.

This recovery strategy will be followed by one or more action plans that will provide information on recovery measures to be taken by Environment and Climate Change Canada, the Parks Canada Agency and other jurisdictions and/or organizations involved in the conservation of the species. Implementation of this strategy is subject to appropriations, priorities and budgetary constraints of the participating jurisdictions and organizations.

The recovery strategy sets the strategic direction to arrest or reverse the decline of the species, including identification of critical habitat to the extent possible. It provides all Canadians with information to help take action on species conservation. When critical habitat is identified, either in a recovery strategy or an action plan, there may be future regulatory implications, depending on where the critical habitat is identified. SARA requires that critical habitat identified within a national park named and described in Schedule 1 to the Canada National Parks Act, the Rouge National Urban Park established by the Rouge National Urban Park Act, a marine protected area under the Oceans Act, a migratory bird sanctuary under the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 or a national wildlife area under the Canada Wildlife Act be described in the Canada Gazette, after which prohibitions against its destruction will apply. For critical habitat located on other federal lands, the competent minister must either make a statement on existing legal protection or make an order so that the prohibition against destruction of critical habitat applies. For any part of critical habitat located on non-federal lands, if the competent minister forms the opinion that any portion of critical habitat is not protected by provisions in or measures under SARA or other Acts of Parliament, or the laws of the province or territory, SARA requires that the Minister recommend that the Governor in Council make an order to prohibit destruction of critical habitat. The discretion to protect critical habitat on non-federal lands that is not otherwise protected rests with the Governor in Council.

Acknowledgements

This recovery strategy was prepared by François Shaffer (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – Quebec Region), based on a draft by Benoît Audet (private consultant). This document was made possible through the contributions of Yves Aubry, Bruno Drolet, Sébastien Paradis, Karine Picard, Josée Tardif, Charles Clavet, Geneviève Langlois and Vincent Carignan (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – Quebec Region), Andrew Boyne, Becky Whittam, Peter Thomas and Samara Eaton (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – Atlantic Region), James Bridgland, Mathieu Côté, Edouard Daigle, Jean-Louis Provencher, Darroch Whitaker (Parks Canada Agency), Isabelle Gauthier and Jérôme Lemaître (Quebec Department of Forests, Wildlife and Parks), Scott Makepeace, Steve Gordon, Hubert Askanas and Maureen Toner (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources), Mark Elderkin (Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources), Manon Dubé (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service – National Capital Region) and Marie-José Ribeyron (private consultant).

Executive summary

The Bicknell’s Thrush (Catharus bicknelli) was listed as a threatened species in Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act (SARA) in 2012.

The Bicknell’s Thrush is a rare, range-restricted passerine species. During the breeding season, the species inhabits inland forests at elevations ranging from 380 to 1,100 m, as well as coastal lowland forests in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the northeastern United States. It winters in the Greater Antilles, with the bulk of its population occurring in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola). All the available indices on population trends for the species in Canada indicate a decline in abundance and range.

The main threat facing the Bicknell’s Thrush is habitat loss and degradation. The wintering area is particularly subject to pressures such as subsistence farming, logging and human-caused fires. In the breeding range, Bicknell’s Thrush habitats are mainly affected by forestry practices as well as the creation of wind farms.

There are unknowns regarding the feasibility of recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush. Nevertheless, in keeping with the precautionary principle, this recovery strategy has been prepared as per section 41(1) of SARA, as is done when recovery is determined to be feasible.

The population and distribution objectives for the Bicknell’s Thrush are as follows:

  • in the short term (2016-2026), slow the decline in its population while ensuring that no more than 10% of the population is lost during this period, and ensure that no net loss occurs in its biological area of occupancyFootnote1 throughout the species’ entire range in Canada;
  • in the long term (after 2026), ensure a positive population trend over 10 years, as well as a positive trend in the species’ biological area of occupancy, throughout the species’ range in Canada.

The broad strategies to be taken to address the threats to the survival and recovery of the species are presented in the section on Strategic Direction for Recovery.

The Bicknell’s Thrush critical habitat is partially identified in this recovery strategy. The identification of critical habitat is based on two criteria: the presence of suitable habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush and occupancy of this habitat by the species. It corresponds to suitable habitat within a radius of 5 km of all coordinates representing a possible, probable or confirmed breeding record obtained over the period from 1995 to 2014. A schedule of studies outlines the key activities that are required to complete the identification of critical habitat. Examples of activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat are also outlined.

One or more action plans for the Bicknell’s Thrush will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry within five years after the final version of this recovery strategy is posted.

Recovery feasibility summary

Based on the following four criteria that Environment and Climate Change Canada uses to establish recovery feasibility, there are unknowns regarding the feasibility of recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush. In keeping with the precautionary principle, this recovery strategy has been prepared as per subsection 41(1) of SARA, as would be done when recovery is determined to be technically and biologically feasible. This recovery strategy addresses the unknowns surrounding the feasibility of recovery.

1. Individuals of the wildlife species that are capable of reproduction are available now or in the foreseeable future to sustain the population or improve its abundance.

Yes. The Bicknell’s Thrush population has a significant number of wild breeding individuals. According to the most recent status report, the global population is between 98,050 and 125,898 individuals and the Canadian population is between 40 570 and 49 258 (COSEWIC 2009). This number of individuals is sufficient to sustain and increase the population.

2. Sufficient suitable habitat is available to support the species or could be made available through habitat management or restoration.

Unknown. The potential breeding habitat for the species in Canada is an estimated 48,850 km2 (COSEWIC 2009). A large part of this area is located in managedFootnote2 forests, and the size of the area therefore depends on how the forests are managed and on the nature of the forest treatments. Certain types of activities carried out in forests, such as the construction of access roads and wind farm developments, can permanently reduce the area of suitable habitat. The availability of wintering habitat (located in the Greater Antilles) is considered an important limiting factor for the species. Its total current area has been assessed at ±33 170 km2 (McFarland et al. 2013) and will likely continue to decrease given the major challenge of reducing the threats to the species’ habitat owing to the difficult socio-economic situation in the Dominican Republic and Haiti (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Perdomo and Arias 2008; Sergile 2008) and given the fact that less than 30% of the potential habitat identified has conservation status (McFarland et al. 2013). Efforts to manage or restore the species’ wintering habitat could improve the situation, but it is not certain that such efforts would succeed in reversing this trend and increasing the area of wintering habitat.

3. The primary threats to the species or its habitat (including threats outside Canada) can be avoided or mitigated.

Unknown. The primary threats to the Bicknell’s Thrush and its habitat in its breeding range can be avoided or mitigated through legal measures or other methods such as stewardship or appropriate management approaches. The threats relating to climate change, if confirmed, pose a challenge, but it is reasonable to believe that avoidance or mitigation of other threats, some of which have greater impacts, will make it possible to improve the environmental and ecological conditions to the point of enabling the species to recover. The likelihood of success in avoiding or mitigating the threats present in the species’ wintering area, in particular threats to its habitat, is however more uncertain for the reasons noted in criterion 2.

4. Recovery techniques exist to achieve the population and distribution objectives or can be expected to be developed within a reasonable timeframe.

Yes. Forest management techniques and measures for managing habitat used by the Bicknell’s Thrush exist which, taken together, can maintain or promote the regeneration of breeding habitat. In the wintering area, different habitat creation or conservation techniques will have to be developed or adapted.

1 COSEWICi species assessment information

Date of assessment:
November 2009
Common name (population):
Bicknell’s Thrush
Scientific name:
Catharus bicknelli
COSEWIC status:
Threatened
Reason for designation:
This species has one of the most restricted breeding ranges among the forest birds of North America. It inhabits the forests of montane and cool coastal zones, as well as high-elevation regenerating forests over 600 ii m in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and the northeastern United States. It winters in the Greater Antilles, where the bulk of its population appears to be in the Dominican Republic. Despite the difficulty of adequately monitoring the species, all the available indices on trends point to significant declines in population and area of occupancy. Preliminary results from the Maritimes Breeding Bird Atlas project suggest a 40% decline in the area occupied over the last three generations, while the High Elevation Landbird Program suggests more dramatic declines in the same regions. Recent surveys in Quebec also indicate declines in some locations. While reasons for the decline are unclear, habitat loss on the wintering grounds, management practices such as pre-commercial thinning in regenerating forests and climate change are leading to a reduction of suitable high-elevation habitat.
Canadian occurrence:
Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia
COSEWIC status history:
Designated Special Concern in April 1999. Status re examined and designated Threatened in November 2009.

i COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada)

ii New information that has become available since the publication of the COSEWIC status report on the Bicknell’s Thrush indicates that the species occurs in forests ranging in elevation from 380 m to 1,100 m (IBTCG 2010).

2 Species status information

Approximately 95% of the Bicknell’s Thrush potential breeding habitat is in Canada (COSEWIC 2009). The Bicknell’s Thrush was listed as Threatened in Schedule 1 of the Species at Risk Act in 2012. It is designated Vulnerable in Quebec under the Act Respecting Threatened or Vulnerable Species(CQLR, c. E-12.01), Vulnerable in Nova Scotia under the Endangered Species Act (c. 11, s. 1.) and Threatened in New Brunswick under the Species at Risk Act (Regulation 2013-38). It is listed as a Species of Concern in all the U.S. states in which it occurs.

The Bicknell’s Thrush is considered to be “apparently secure globally” (G4) (NatureServe 2013) and has national breeding status ranks of N4B (apparently secure) in Canada and N3B (vulnerable) in the United States. The subnational conservation status ranks for the species vary by state or province (see Table 1).

Table 1. Subnational Conservation Status Ranks (S-ranks) for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada and the United States (NatureServe 2013)
Country Provinces/States and NatureServe conservation status ranksa
Canada New Brunswick (S2S3B), Nova Scotia (S1S2B), Ontario (SNA), Prince Edward Island (SUB), Quebec (S2b)
United States Connecticut (SNA), Delaware (SNA), Georgia (SNA), Maine (S3B), Maryland (SNA), Massachusetts (SXB), New Hampshire (S2S3B), New Jersey (SNA), New York (S2S3B), North Carolina (SNA), Pennsylvania (SNA), Rhode Island (SNA), South Carolina (SNA), Vermont (S2B), Virginia (SNA)

a See Appendix A for definitions of the status ranks used by NatureServe (2013).

b Source: Centre de données sur le patrimoine naturel du Québec (2015).

3 Species information

3.1 Species description

Discovered in 1882 but only recognized as a distinct species since 1995, the Bicknell’s Thrush is the smallest of the northern Catharus thrushes (body length: 16–18 cm; body mass: 25–30 g). Its upperparts are mainly drab olive brown and the underparts are gray with dark spots on the throat and breast. The folded primaries and rump (upper tail) feathers are chestnut brown. During the breeding season, its lower mandible is pale yellow on at least the proximal half. There is no obvious sexual dimorphism, but males can be slightly larger than females (Frey et al. 2008). The Bicknell’s Thrush is similar to the other northern Catharus thrushes, particularly the larger Gray-cheeked Thrush (COSEWIC 2009).

3.2 Population and distribution

The Bicknell’s Thrush has a restricted range. Its breeding range lies entirely within the northeastern part of the North American continent (Figure 1). In Canada, the Bicknell’s Thrush nests in southern Quebec, in north-central and northwestern New Brunswick and on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. The breeding range is fragmented owing to the specific conditions sought by this species (e.g., high elevation, specific forest stands; see section 3.3 for more information). The species’ wintering area is equally restricted and located in the Greater Antilles, primarily the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola Island) (Figure 2; IBTCG 2010; McFarland et al. 2013).

Figure 1. Bicknell’s Thrush breeding range in Canada and the United States, in green (adapted from Lambert et al. 2005; Hart et al. in prep.; and unpublished data of Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Canadian Wildlife Service).
Map of Bicknell’s Thrush breeding range (see long description below)
Long description for Figure 1

Figure 1 depicts the distribution of the breeding range for Bicknell’s Thrush which lies throughout the northeastern part of North America. The main focus is in Canada with nests in southern Quebec, north-central and northwestern New Brunswick and on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia. There is little distribution in Maine.

Figure 2. Potential wintering area of the Bicknell’s Thrush in the Greater Antilles, in green. The black triangles indicate the known observation sites of the species (adapted from McFarland et al. 2013)
Map of potential wintering area (see long description below)
Long description for Figure 2

Figure 2 depicts the distribution of the potential wintering area of the Bicknell’s Thrush in the Greater Antilles as well as the known observation sites of the species. The main focus of the potential wintering areas and the observation sites are found in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola Island) with some concentration of potential wintering throughout Jamaica, Puerto Rico and a few in the southern region of Cuba. A couple known observation sites can be found in these areas as well.

The species has a small global population (estimated at 98 050 to 125 898 individuals), of which 40 570 to 49 258 individuals breed in Canada (COSEWIC 2009). Given this species’ skewed sex ratio, there would be only 10 142 to 16 419 females. This represents the maximum reproductive population size for the species in Canada (COSEWIC 2009).

Population trends for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada have declined, regardless of the region and period considered. The data collected through the Breeding Bird Survey program indicate a 3.42% overall annual decline in Bicknell’s Thrush abundance in Canada between 1970 and 2012.Footnote3 According to data from the same program, the annual decline for Nova Scotia over the same period is 7.07%, which is comparable to the results of the analysis of the data of the High Elevation Landbird Program (HELP) conducted by Campbell and Stewart (2012), which found an abundance decline of approximately 7.4% annually between 2002 and 2011. For New Brunswick, this figure rises to 11.5% over the same period (Campbell and Stewart 2012). For these two provinces combined, Bicknell’s Thrush distribution has reportedly decreased by 65% over approximately 20 years and by more than 40% in the last 10 years (COSEWIC 2009). In Quebec, while a population trend cannot yet be calculated for the species, monitoring carried out at Mount Gosford from 2001 to 2007 reveals a 60% decline in the number of individuals detected (Y. Aubry, Environment and Climate Change Canada, unpublished data reported by IBTCG 2010).

3.3 Needs of the Bicknell’s Thrush

Breeding habitat

The Bicknell’s Thrush is a habitat specialist. It is generally associated with dense undisturbed coniferous forest or disturbed areas undergoing vigorous succession dominated by Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) with high stem densities (10,000–50,000 stems/ha) (COSEWIC 2009; Bredin and Whittam 2009). Elevation is an important characteristic of the species’ breeding habitat. In Canada, at inland sites in the southern part of the species’ range, the minimum elevation is approximately 800 m. This minimum elevation declines with increasing latitude, to approximately 380 m in the northern limit of its range (IBTCG 2010). In coastal localities, the Bicknell’s Thrush occurs from elevations starting near sea level. Because of these specific requirements, the species’ breeding range is fragmented, which increases its vulnerability of being extirpated from one or more smaller breeding sites (Bredin and Whittam 2009).

Three breeding habitat types are used by the Bicknell’s Thrush (COSEWIC 2009). High Balsam Fir stem density is an important characteristic of all three (Wallace 1939; Sabo 1980; Connolly 2000; Nixon et al. 2001; Whittam and Ball 2003; Frey et al. 2008; Aubry and Paradis 2009; Y. Aubry unpubl. data).

High-elevation montane forests

In high-elevation montane areas, the Bicknell’s Thrush selects undisturbed forests and forests regenerating after natural disturbances (e.g., fir stands affected by fir wave mortality [Sprugel 1976], windthrow, ice and snow damage, fire and insects, such as Spruce Budworm [Choristoneura fumiferana]), with standing dead conifers and dense regrowth of Balsam Fir (Wallace 1939; Rimmer et al. 2001). The species also uses chronically disturbed, stunted-tree stands (Rimmer et al. 2001).

High-elevation managed forests

Managed forests are defined as forests managed for wood or fibre production (COSEWIC 2009). The Bicknell’s Thrush breeds in these anthropogenically disturbed forests, i.e., in regenerating clearcuts and unthinned conifer plantations 10 to 15 years after cutting (Bredin and Whittam 2009), when they have been invaded by dense regeneration of Balsam Fir. Studies conducted in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia indicate that these stands are dominated by Balsam Fir and that the Bicknell’s Thrush uses stands with a stem density as high as 50 000 stems per hectare and an average young tree height of 3.4 m in New Brunswick and 5 m in Nova Scotia (Campbell et al. 2005; Bredin and Whittam 2009).

Coastal lowland forests

Locally, the species also occupies similar habitats in coastal localities, where the maritime climate, cool offshore winds and high precipitation levels maintain dense spruce-fir stands (COSEWIC 2009). This is the case in Nova Scotia where, according to Bredin and Whittam (2009), the species traditionally nests in dense, often stunted coniferous forests typically found on coastal headlands. These forests are composed primarily of Balsam Fir and Black Spruce (Picea mariana) and are sometimes referred to as krummholtzFootnote4 or taiga.

Post-breeding habitat

Little information is available on post-breeding habitat use by Bicknell’s Thrush. The species may use forest habitat at a lower elevation than the breeding habitat because this habitat provides the conditions and food resources necessary for the species’ survival just ahead of migration (Collins 2007). However, the species has also been found in habitats located at higher elevations prior to migration (Rimmer and McFarland 2000).

Migration habitat

Little is known about habitat selection by the Bicknell’s Thrush during migration. It appears to use a variety of habitats at both coastal and inland localities, which suggests little specificity of habitat use (Rimmer et al. 2001; COSEWIC 2009). Migratory routes for the Bicknell’s Thrush are poorly documented, but appear to be concentrated east of the Appalachian Mountains (Wilson and Watts 1997). Southbound migrants gather north of the Carolinas before an oceanic flight to their wintering grounds. Northbound migrants apparently travel through eastern Florida and northward along the coastal plain (Evans 1994; Rimmer et al. 2001).

Wintering habitat

The forests occupied by the species in its wintering grounds span a series of successional and disturbance regimes, from undisturbed primary forest to moderately disturbed secondary forest (Rimmer et al. 2001). The variables that are the best predictors of wintering habitat use by this species are elevation, land cover (marked preference for broadleaf forests), average winter precipitation, slope and aspect (McFarland et al. 2013).

The available wintering habitat covers only 33 170 km2 in the Greater Antilles, 28.5% of which has protected status of some kind (McFarland et al. 2013). The availability of wintering habitat is considered an important limiting factor for this species. The wintering habitat is subject to serious threats (see section 4).

4 Threats

4.1 Threat assessment

Table 2. Habitat loss or degradation threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Subsistence farming, logging and human-caused fires in the wintering area High Localized Current Continuous High High
Forestry practices in the breeding range High Localized Current Seasonal High High
Construction of wind farms in the breeding range High Localized Current NS:Anticipated Continuous High High
Clearing for recreational development in the breeding range Medium Localized Current Continuous Moderate to high High
Development for telecommunications in the breeding range Medium Localized Current Continuous Moderate High
Overgrazing by moose in the breeding range

Low

Medium (Nova Scotia)

Localized Current Continuous Moderate

Low

Medium (Nova Scotia)

Coastal development along flyways Low Localized Current Continuous Unknown Low
Table 2. Exotic, invasive or introduced species/genome threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Rats and cats introduced into the wintering area Medium Localized Current Seasonal Moderate Medium
Table 2. Pollution threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Acid precipitation Low Widespread Current Continuous Unknown Medium
Mercury bioaccumulation Low Widespread Current Continuous  Low Low
Lead poisoning Low Widespread Anticipated Continuous Unknown Low
Table 2. Accidental mortality threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Collisions with human-made structures Low Localized Anticipated Seasonal Unknown Low
Table 2. Changes in ecological dynamics or natural processes threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Control over natural disturbances Low Widespread Current Continuous Moderate Medium
Table 2. Natural processes or activities threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Red Squirrel predation Low Widespread Common Recurrent Moderate Low
Table 2. Disturbance or harm threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Recreational activities Low Localized Anticipated Seasonal Unknown Low
Table 2. Climate and natural disasters threat assessment table
Threat Level of Concernc Extent Occurrence Frequency Severityd Causal Certaintye
Climate change Unknown Widespread Anticipated Continuous Unknown Unknown

c Level of concern: signifies that managing the threat is of (high, medium or low) concern for the recovery of the species, consistent with the population and distribution objectives. This criterion considers the assessment of all the information in the table.

d Severity: reflects the population-level effect (high: very large population-level effect, moderate, low, unknown).

e Causal certainty: reflects the degree of evidence that is known for the threat (high: available evidence strongly links the threat to stresses on population viability; medium: there is a correlation between the threat and population viability, e.g., expert opinion; low: the threat is assumed or plausible).

4.2 Description of threats

This section describes the threats outlined in Table 2, emphasizes key points, and provides additional information. The threats are listed individually. Although a number of threats are considered a low level of concern, it is important to take account of their cumulative effects over time. The threats are described below in order of decreasing level of concern.

Subsistence farming, logging and human-caused fires in the wintering area

Forest habitat loss from subsistence farming and logging has been severe on the island of Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic) where the bulk of the Bicknell’s Thrush population winters (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Rimmer et al. 1999, Rimmer et al., 2005a). Fires caused by people are an additional threat to the Bicknell’s Thrush winter habitat (IBTCG 2010). Only 10% of the original forest cover remains in the Dominican Republic (Stattersfield et al. 1998), while just 2% persists in Haiti (Paryski et al. 1989; Sergile 2008). The rate of deforestation is unlikely to decrease in the near future, given the socio-economic pressures in both countries (Stattersfield et al. 1998; Perdomo and Arias 2008; Sergile 2008). The massive loss of habitat on Hispaniola could be the primary cause of the Bicknell’s Thrush population decline (Aubry and Paradis 2009; IBTCG 2010). A higher proportion of males seem to occupy habitats less disturbed by farming, while females are more likely to be found in more disturbed habitats, which could affect their survival (Townsend et al. 2011). In Cuba, more Bicknell’s Thrush habitat is available since 21% of the island retains forest cover, partly as a result of reforestation since 1960 (Mugica 2008). However, the distribution and size of the Bicknell’s Thrush population wintering in Cuba are not well documented. As a result, the extent to which these forests benefit the Bicknell’s Thrush is unclear. The Sierra Maestra mountain chain in Cuba is the only area where the Bicknell’s Thrush has been located. This area has dense forest cover and benefits from the protection of the Sierra Maestra National Park and the Turquino National Park (Y. Aubry pers. comm. 2015).

The limited availability of wintering habitat makes these threats all the more serious. Furthermore, since only a small proportion of this habitat has protected status, it is very likely that the availability of suitable wintering habitat will continue to decline in the years ahead.

Forestry practices in the breeding range

In Canada, roughly 90% of potential Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat is located within managed forest (Aubry and Paradis 2009; COSEWIC 2009) and is therefore subject to forest management. High stem density is an important characteristic of the species’ breeding habitat, such that forest management practices that do not promote the maintenance of high stem density or the creation of suitable habitat--whether harvesting or pre-commercial thinningFootnote5 – are a threat to this species (Aubry et al., in press). The larger the area affected, the greater the loss of suitable habitat. The area of habitat required to support the species at the current level is unknown.

Stand stem density is related to the age of the regenerating forest, with a higher stem density in the initial stages, followed by a reduction in density as the forest reaches maturity. The time it takes for the development of a forest having a suitable structure and stand density for the species can differ from one part of its range to another. It has been estimated at 10 to 15 years in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia (Bredin and Whittam 2009; Campbell et al. 2005) and likely up to 20 years in Quebec, with climate factors and length of growing season varying as a function of region and elevation.

Pre-commercial thinning is a threat to the species and its habitat, because it is carried out during the period at which stem density is favourable to nesting of the species and during the species’ breeding period (Bredin and Whittam, 2009; Campbell et al. 2005). Pre-commercial thinning also prematurely reduces the quality of suitable habitat. This type of management practice is typically carried out between June and September, which largely corresponds to the nesting period, when the risk of harming or disturbing nests and eggs is the highest (Rousseu and Drolet 2015). As a result, this practice is likely to lead to the direct destruction of nests, eggs and chicks (Environment Canada 2014). It can also disturb nesting attempts.

Thinned stands are not suitable habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush, but there remains some uncertainty regarding the species’ use of recently pre-commercially thinned stands or unthinned areas remaining within thinned stands (Chisholm and Leonard 2008; Aubry et al. 2011). There is some suggestion that the Bicknell’s Thrush may re-use pre-commercially thinned stands once the canopy recloses (Chisholm and Leonard 2008; Aubry et al. 2011).

Other silvicultural treatments may also have impacts on the Bicknell’s Thrush and its habitat, although no specific studies have been conducted on them. They include commercial thinning and planting,Footnote6 which also reduce or modulate stand stem density to promote the growth of crop trees (MRN 2013). In most cases, the resulting stand density does not meet the requirements of the Bicknell’s Thrush. Further studies are needed to determine their impacts.

Lastly, the construction of infrastructure (forest roads, sand pits, etc.) can also have an impact on the Bicknell’s Thrush, including habitat fragmentation, creation of barriers likely to restrict movements and destruction of nests.

Construction of wind farms in the breeding range

The mountain tops used by Bicknell’s Thrush as breeding habitat are the site of wind farm construction. Since wind power is currently experiencing rapid growth, a number of wind farm projects are being proposed and developed in Bicknell’s Thrush habitat (e.g., Caribou Mountain, in New Brunswick, and the Massif du Sud, Terres du Séminaire, Rivière du Moulin, Saint-Robert-Belleramin and Murdochville, in Quebec) (COSEWIC 2009). The construction of wind farms is also anticipated elsewhere in the species’ habitat, for example in the Lower St. Lawrence and Gaspé regions of Quebec, as well as in Nova Scotia, where the sites occupied by the species during the breeding season are also some of the windiest in the province. The development of these sites for wind power is therefore of great economic interest and the pressure to develop these sites will intensify over the coming years (M. Elderkin pers. comm.).

Land clearing for turbine foundation installation, as well as for the construction of access roads and electricity transmission corridors associated with the turbines, results in the permanent loss and fragmentation of Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat (Zimmerling et al. 2013). In addition, direct mortality results from collisions with these tall structures, both during migration and during the summer season (Rimmer et al. 2001) (see Collisions with human-made structures).

Clearing for recreational development in the breeding range

In some areas, Bicknell’s Thrush habitat is also threatened by clearing for recreational development such as trails and areas for skiing, hiking, biking and all-terrain vehicles (COSEWIC 2009). Backcountry skiing is increasingly popular in the Gaspé region. In backcountry skiing areas, the objective is to provide skiable areas through bush, such that 60% to 80% of the area is cut. The rest of the area is conserved as small wooded patches (M. Morin pers. comm. 2015).

Development for telecommunications in the breeding range

Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat located at high elevations is also threatened by telecommunications development. Such development is escalating in Canada with the rapid increase in cell phones, pagers and digital television (Bredin and Whittam 2009). The construction of telecommunication towers has a similar impact to that of wind turbines, although less severe since a given site typically has only one tower, unlike wind farms, where a number of turbines are generally constructed in the same area. In addition, telecommunication towers are usually accompanied by small buildings surrounded by fences and lighting (Bredin and Whittam 2009), which have an impact on the species’ habitat and can also cause disturbance to the birds themselves. Finally, in the same way as wind turbines, telecommunication towers can cause direct mortality of birds (Rimmer et al. 2001) (see Collision with human-made structures).

Overgrazing by moose in the breeding range

Locally, in areas where moose are hyper-abundant, overgrazing by moose can alter the composition and structure of the forest. Areas that should have regenerated into dense fir-birch stands, characteristic of the first stages of succession, are transformed into open clearings typically dominated by herbaceous vegetation (McLaren et al. 2004). Since the breeding habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush is primarily composed of Balsam Fir stands, this habitat can sometimes be significantly reduced. Such changes have been observed in northern Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, by Smith et al. (2010) and in the Cascapédia Lake area, in Gaspésie National Park (Y. Aubry, pers. comm. 2015). Smith et al. (2010) conclude that there is a relationship between sustained, intensive moose browsing and alterations to the cyclic successional system between Balsam Fir and Spruce Budworm outbreaks. The impact of intensive moose browsing on the forest has not been studied in other parts of the Bicknell’s Thrush breeding range, but it is conceivable that impacts may exist in areas with a high moose population.

Coastal development along flyways

The flyways used by the Bicknell’s Thrush are not yet well known, but scientists believe that the species migrates along the east coast of North America. While the characteristics of the species’ staging areas have not been studied, coastal development (new buildings, wind turbines, communications towers, etc.) is damaging the habitats of other migratory birds (Moore et al. 1995; Moore 2000). The Bicknell’s Thrush could therefore also be affected by this type of development.

Rats and cats introduced into the wintering area

Introduced rats on the island of Hispaniola attack the Bicknell’s Thrush: five of the 53 (9.4%) birds monitored with transmitters have been the victims of rats (Townsend et al. 2009). Other introduced predators, such as cats, also pose a threat to birds (IBTCG 2010). A study conducted in Canada showed that cats killed 100 to 350 million birds a year in the country. Ground nesting and feeding birds appear to be more vulnerable (Blancher 2013).

Acid precipitations

Nitrogen compounds (nitrates and ammonia) emitted into the atmosphere by the industrial and transportation sectors are deposited at high elevations as acid precipitation; this contributes to the leaching of calcium from soils, a phenomenon that is particularly marked in the northeastern part of the continent (Driscoll et al. 2001). The resulting loss of large quantities of soil calcium could reverberate through the food chain as far as the Bicknell’s Thrush, causing a calcium deficiency that could result in weaker shells, as is the case with other passerine birds from northern Europe that nest in acidified areas (Graveland and Drent 1997; Mand et al. 2000). The calcium leaching caused by acid precipitation (rain, mist and fog) may also act directly on vegetation, particularly with respect to the calcium contained in the cell membranes of spruce needles (DeHayes et al. 1990; 1999). This loss of needle calcium would reduce the spruce trees’ tolerance to low temperatures, and studies suggest that the decline in Red Spruce (Picea rubens) observed in most of its range since the 1960s (Eager and Adams 1992) is related to this phenomenon (DeHayes et al. 1990; 1999). This decline could disturb Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat by allowing other less suitable tree species to become established.

Mercury bioaccumulation

High-elevation environments are more prone to airborne contaminant deposition (Rimmer et al. 2005b), and the Bicknell’s Thrush could therefore be exposed to significant concentrations of these contaminants. In addition, the mercury released into the atmosphere from waste incineration and coal burning is a concern because of its capacity to bioaccumulate in the food chain. Researchers have also found significant levels of mercury in Bicknell’s Thrush tissues (Rimmer et al. 2005b; Townsend 2011; Townsend et al. 2013). On the whole, the concentrations were higher in the wintering grounds than in the breeding grounds (Rimmer et al. 2005b; Townsend et al. 2013). However, the effects on physiology and behaviour have not been documented in detail. High concentrations could compromise the birds’ immune systems and cause reduced fecundity (Brasso and Cristol 2008; Hawley et al. 2009; Jackson et al. 2011).

Lead poisoning

High levels of lead have been detected in high-elevation soils in the northeastern United States (Kaste et al. 2006). Research is needed to determine whether exposure to elevated levels of lead or other trace elements in the soils could affect the physiology or behaviour of the Bicknell’s Thrush.

Collisions with human-made structures

As mentioned earlier (see Construction of wind farms and Development for telecommunications in the breeding range), collisions with structures such as communication towers, buildings and other vertical structures have occasionally been reported (Rimmer et al. 2001; Calvert et al. 2013).

Control over natural disturbances

Control over plant succession may alter the availability or quality of Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat. The species usually nests in very dense regenerating stands that follow disturbances such as fires or insect infestations. Control over natural disturbances (e.g., fires, insect pests) may result in fewer stands regenerating to a stage where they can be used by the Bicknell’s Thrush for breeding (IBTCG 2010).

Red Squirrel predation

Video monitoring of nests has shown that the Red Squirrel is a major predator of Bicknell Thrush eggs and nests (Y. Aubry unpubl.; VCE unpublished data). Research conducted in the United States has found that Bicknell’s Thrush breeding success is lower in the years following summers with especially abundant Balsam Fir and spruce cone crops, which occurs every other year (Rimmer et al. 2001; Bredin and Whittam 2009). This biennial pattern of breeding success has been traced to population cycles of Red Squirrels, which feed heavily on cones, especially fir and spruce cones (Rimmer et al. 2001; Bredin and Whittam 2009). This situation results in better winter survival of the squirrels, which produce more young the following spring, leading to increased squirrel predation of Bicknell’s Thrush eggs and nestlings. In the Atlantic provinces however, the High Elevation Landbird Program (HELP), which counts the number of squirrels observed on each route annually, has so far not detected any relationship between Red Squirrel numbers and Bicknell’s Thrush abundance in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (Bredin and Whittam 2009).

Recreational activities

Summer recreational activities at high elevations, such as hiking, mountain biking and ATV use, could pose another threat. While various indicators suggest that the species is able to tolerate a moderate level of human disturbance (Rimmer et al.2001), there are no studies that confirm that the species is tolerant of the above-mentioned activities. It can, however, be said that such activities pose a localized threat, the potential impact of which is more anticipated than real.

Climate change

Climate change could push the forest stands used by breeding Bicknell’s Thrushes to even higher elevations (Iverson et al. 2008; Rodenhouse et al. 2008). Such a change has already been documented in the Green Mountains of New England, where Beckage et al. (2008) estimated that a 91–119 m upslope shift in the lower elevational limit of the spruce-fir zone occurred between 1964 and 2004. This change coincided with a 1° C increase in average temperatures over the same period. Given that the Bicknell’s Thrush already frequently nests at high elevations, displacement to even higher elevations would mean that it would be confined to progressively smaller and more isolated mountain patches. A study conducted on this potential threat indicates that a 1 °C increase in temperature would reduce potential habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush by more than half, while an increase of 2 °C could eliminate all breeding sites in the Catskill Mountains and most of Vermont (Rodenhouse et al. 2008). A 3 °C increase in growing season temperature could eliminate nearly all the Bicknell’s Thrush habitats in the northeastern United States (IBTCG 2010). However, there is a strong possibility that the species’ range is shifting northward (Cumming et al. 2014). In Canada, a northward shift in the Balsam Fir distribution range could result in the reduction or elimination of the Bicknell’s Thrush population in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, since the current range of this species is close to the northern boundaries of those provinces.

Climate change could also lead to an increased frequency of tropical storms and other adverse weather conditions (e.g., heavy rain, extreme temperatures). This increase in adverse weather conditions could result in higher nest failure and direct mortality rates for these birds throughout their annual cycle (Angeles et al. 2007; Rodenhouse et al. 2008). More intense and frequent rain and wind storms could reduce foraging opportunities, abnormally cold weather or prolonged heat waves could interfere with thermoregulation, and stronger and more frequent hurricanes could disrupt migrations and damage wintering habitats. It is currently impossible to assess the severity of the potential indirect effects of climate change on the Bicknell’s Thrush.

Climate change also has the potential to affect a variety of environmental and ecological parameters that determine the viability of Bicknell’s Thrush populations (e.g., spread of pests and pathogens that attack forests in the species’ breeding habitat (IBTCG 2010), timing of predator cycles (McCarty 2001), dates of spring prey emergence (Sillett et al. 2000; Sanz et al. 2003; Both et al. 2006) and interspecific competition (Wormworth and Mallon 2006). These effects are not well understood, and research is required to assess their impacts.

5 Population and distribution objectives

The population and distribution objectives for the Bicknell’s Thrush are as follows:

  • in the short term (2016-2026), slow the decline in its population while ensuring that no more than 10% of the population is lost during that period, and ensure that no net loss occurs in its biological area of occupancyFootnote7 throughout its range in Canada;
  • in the long term (after 2026), ensure a positive population trend over 10 years, as well as a positive trend in the species’ biological area of occupancy, throughout the species’ range in Canada.

The population objectives address the long-term decline of the Bicknell’s Thrush population, the factor that led to its designation as a threatened species in Canada (COSEWIC 2009). In order to take into consideration the fact that the population objectives are based on the species’ demographic trends, the recovery strategy includes approaches for improving population monitoring. The objectives aim to ensure a positive trend over 10 years, without attempting to restore the maximum known population level, given that the significant reduction in the species’ wintering habitat is largely irreversible.

The distribution objectives are based on the biological area of occupancy of the Bicknell’s Thrush, since this datum best reflects the species’ distribution. Owing to its specific habitat requirements, the Bicknell’s Thrush occupies only a small portion of its extent of occurrence.Footnote8 The distribution objectives cover the species’ entire range in Canada in order to prevent the loss of part of this fragmented range.

A 10-year period is appropriate to assess changes in the species’ population and distribution. This length of time was chosen because halting the decline is a challenge that cannot be met within the span of a few years. In addition, COSEWIC assesses species every 10 years and its assessment criteria include a review of demographic changes over a 10-year period.

These objectives will be reviewed when preparing the report required every five years to assess the implementation of this recovery strategy and measure the progress toward meeting the strategy’s population and distribution objectives (section 46, SARA). The objectives could also be reviewed outside this period in light of new information if this is appropriate for the species’ recovery.

It is important to note that there are some uncertainties regarding attainment of the population and distribution objectives because of the challenge posed by reducing the threats to the species and its wintering habitat. These uncertainties have been identified in the assessment of the feasibility of recovery (see that section, p. iv).

6 Broad strategies and general approaches to meet objectives

6.1 Actions already completed or currently underway

Conservation and stewardship

  • The International Bicknell’s Thrush Conservation Group (IBTCG) was formed in 2007 and includes scientists, natural resource managers and conservation authorities from at least seven countries (IBTCG 2010).
  • The International Bicknell’s Thrush Conservation Group (IBTCG) has published the Conservation Action Plan for Bicknell’s Thrush (IBTCG 2010).
  • Studies have been conducted to quantify the extent of the forests that are used or could be used by the Bicknell’s Thrush in the Canadian part of its breeding range, and to identify landowners so that awareness activities and other types of conservation activities may be undertaken (IBTCG 2010; Broeckaert 2011; Bussière 2012; Y. Aubry pers. comm. 2015).
  • The Bicknell’s Thrush Habitat Protection Fund was created in the United States in 2005. This fund is administered by the Adirondack Community Trust, and its primary purpose is to financially support conservation projects for the Bicknell’s Thrush wintering habitat in the Dominican Republic and Haiti.
  • Guides to best management and stewardship practices for the Bicknell’s Thrush have been prepared for the forestry industry in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec (Campbell et al. 2005; Campbell and Whittam 2006; Bredin and Whittam 2009; Rioux and Poulin 2009; Bussière and Julien, 2012a; Bussière and Julien, 2012b) and for the wind power industry (Julien 2012).
  • The Quebec government has developed measures to protect Bicknell’s Thrush pertaining to forest management activities (Gouvernement du Québec 2014).

Demographic monitoring

  • Bird Studies Canada’s High Elevation Landbird Program (HELP) in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick was undertaken between 2002 and 2011 (Campbell and Stewart 2012). A new, improved survey methodology (Mountain BirdWatch 2.0), based on the new protocol for monitoring Bicknell’s Thrush populations of the International Bicknell’s Thrush Conservation Group, was adopted in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick in 2012. This method will ensure long-term, standardized monitoring of the Bicknell’s Thrush throughout its range.
  • In Quebec, partial monitoring of the Bicknell’s Thrush has been carried out by Environment and Climate Change Canada’s Canadian Wildlife Service and by the Regroupement QuébecOiseaux since 1989 (Perreault 2013; Y Aubry pers. comm. 2015). More recently, the Quebec Department of Forests, Wildlife and Parks has conducted monitoring of sites on public lands (MDDEFP 2013).

Research

  • Since 1997, various professional and academic projects on the Bicknell’s Thrush have been undertaken in a number of regions in southern Quebec and the Maritimes (including Rompré et al. 1999; Connolly 2000; Nixon et al. 2001; Connolly et al. 2002; Gardiner 2005; Askanas 2008; Chisholm and Leonard 2008; McKinnon 2009; Askanas 2011; Aubry et al. 2011; McKinnon et al. 2014; Aubry et al. in press).
  • A study that uses solar geolocators attached to the backs of Bicknell’s Thrushes is currently underway to gather more information on the species’ migratory routes as well as on the connectivity in time and space between the breeding and wintering areas (McFarland et al. in prep.).
  • A study is under way to estimate the occupancy rates of the Bicknell’s Thrush in managed forests of northern New Brunswick.

6.2 Strategic direction for recovery

The broad strategies and research and management approaches outlined in this section (Table 3), although worded differently, are essentially the same as those of the Conservation Action Plan for Bicknell’s Thrush (IBTCG 2010) prepared by the International Bicknell’s Thrush Conservation Group.

Table 3. Recovery Planning Table
Threat or Limiting Factorf Broad Recovery Strategy Priorityf General Description of Research and Management Approaches
All threats
Knowledge gaps
Monitoring and research High

Develop and implement standardized protocols for research and monitoring of the species’ population and distribution, their trends, the threats, the species’ ecology as well as the various types of habitat required for its life cycle, including:

  • Determine the distribution and size of the population as well as their trends in the breeding range and wintering area;
  • Determine the relative importance of the existing and potential threats to the species and its habitat;
  • Determine whether unthinned habitat remaining after pre-commercial thinning can support adequate productivity;
  • Determine whether thinned habitat can once again become suitable after the canopy recloses;
  • Determine the area of unthinned habitat necessary to enable the current breeding population to sustain itself and increase;
  • Determine at what point of maturity a suitable stand becomes no longer favourable to nesting;
  • Determine more precisely the characteristics of the various types of habitat used in the breeding range and the wintering area;
  • Determine the upper limit of human activity that can be allowed in the habitat;
  • Determine whether habitat availability is a significant limiting factor in the breeding area.
All threats Knowledge gaps Monitoring and research Medium
  • Identify the primary migration routes and increase knowledge related to migration chronology.
All threats Conservation and management High
  • Determine the best measures for promoting conservation and development of each of the three types of breeding habitat as well as the post-breeding habitat.
  • Contribute to the conservation, management and, if required, restoration of the habitat used by the species during migration and wintering.
  • Address the main threats to the species’ habitats and determine the best approaches for eliminating, reducing or mitigating the threats to the species.
All threats Education, awareness, stewardship and partnership High
  • Promote national and international collaboration to fill the knowledge gaps and address the threats to the species and its habitat throughout its range.
  • Maintain and improve collaboration among stakeholders in order to address the threats to the species and its habitat throughout its range.
All threats Education, awareness, stewardship and partnership Medium
  • Promote public involvement in habitat protection and species conservation initiatives as well as in the surveying and monitoring activities.
All threats Legislation and policy Medium
  • Promote compliance with environmental acts, regulations and policies, in particular the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994g and its regulations.
  • Encourage the implementation of environmental policies and programs that address the threats on breeding grounds and develop appropriate policies and programs where deficiencies exist.

f “Priority” reflects the degree to which the broad strategy contributes directly to the recovery of the species or is an essential precursor to an approach that contributes to the recovery of the species.

g Environment and Climate Change Canada’s website on incidental take of migratory birds.

6.3 Narrative to support the recovery planning table

Bicknell’s Thrush recovery will require commitment and collaboration among international, federal and provincial jurisdictions, Aboriginal people, local communities, landowners, industry and other interested parties.

Monitoring and research

Standardized protocols are required for monitoring and research activities. Properly designed monitoring activities for determining the size and distribution of the population, as well as their trends, are essential in order to measure achievement of the population and distribution objectives. It is also important to fill the knowledge gaps concerning threats to the species and its habitat. The assessment of threats must be improved in order to determine whether the potential threats actually exist, to take priority action to address the threats of greatest concern, and to determine the most effective action to eliminate, reduce or mitigate those threats. Since there are fewer females than males, particular attention must be paid to the females to determine which threats affect them more, in particular in the wintering habitat. Although certain aspects have yet to be confirmed (e.g., the relationship between the probability of occurrence of the species, latitude and elevation of the forest), the characteristics of the species’ breeding habitat are relatively well known; however, the characteristics of the other types of habitat used by the species in its range (post-breeding habitat, migration habitat) are not well known and merit study since they could play an important role in the species’ recovery. Knowledge about the wintering habitat must also be improved. Given the limited availability of this habitat and the serious threats to it, research to improve knowledge of this habitat must be considered a priority. Information on the species’ migratory routes and the specific migration periods needs to be better documented.

Conservation and management

There are many activities that can affect Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat. To minimize or mitigate the impacts of such activities, breeding habitat conservation and management practices will be needed. To that end, a landscapeFootnote9 approach will have to be adopted. The threats affecting breeding habitat vary, depending on the three habitat types used by the species. This means that the conservation and management measures to be implemented will have to be tailored to each habitat type, taking into consideration habitat dynamics, succession time, and habitat size and shape. Particular efforts will have to be focused on determining the minimum area of habitat required to promote the species’ recovery. In addition, development (e.g., wind farms, telecommunication towers, ski hills) on mountain tops where the species occurs will have to be limited to the extent possible. Although the impact of overgrazing by moose on the species is still not well known, it is clear that it will have to be addressed when and where this proves necessary. The other threats (currently threats with a low level of concern or potential threats) will have to be addressed if necessary.

The conservation and management of the breeding habitat will not be sufficient to ensure the recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush if no measures are taken for its wintering habitat, the availability of which is considered an important limiting factor for the species. The threats to this habitat, in particular subsistence farming, logging and human-caused fires, are of high concern and improving the situation poses a genuine challenge. This requires international collaboration both in order to fill the knowledge gaps and for the planning and implementation of measures to conserve, improve and, if necessary, restore this habitat. Once research has filled the knowledge gaps concerning the post-breeding habitat and the migration habitat, it will be necessary to determine and carry out the required action. All of these measures should have a positive effect on the other species at risk whose habitat requirements overlap those of the Bicknell’s Thrush (see Appendix D). 

All of the threats that directly affect the Bicknell’s Thrush must be considered in order to eliminate, reduce or mitigate their adverse effects on the species. These threats include predation by rats on wintering grounds and the risks of collisions with communication towers and wind turbines. The presence of environmental contaminants, such as mercury, lead and acid precipitation, raises concerns and it will be necessary to identify and implement appropriate measures to limit their adverse effects on the species.

Education, awareness, stewardship and partnership

As mentioned in the introduction to this section, the recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush requires the collaboration and commitment of all the stakeholders, both governments and industries, as well as communities and landowners.

International collaboration is essential because of the serious threats to the species’ wintering habitat. To improve the situation on the wintering grounds, it is important to minimize new habitat losses to the extent possible, to protect remaining habitat suitable for the species and, if possible, to increase the area of this habitat. The International Bicknell’s Thrush Conservation Group (IBTCG), in which a number of Canadian organizations and experts participate, is a key contributor to this effort. The IBTCG has developed a conservation plan for the species and is already working on its implementation, including certain components of this recovery strategy. The IBTCG is also working on securing the necessary funding to aid in the implementation of recovery measures in the countries of the Greater Antilles.

The key stakeholders with an interest in the Bicknell’s Thrush must be identified and engaged in a dialogue in order to develop and apply the most appropriate solutions to the threats affecting the Bicknell’s Thrush. Stewardship strategies and appropriate tools must be developed and communicated effectively to the stakeholders. In particular, it is essential to raise the awareness of the key stakeholders concerning the species’ requirements and work with them to develop methods for intervention in the species’ habitat that will promote habitat conservation. Best practice guides have already been prepared or are being developed for forestry activities. Such guides could be supplemented if needed and similar initiatives will have to be developed to address the other threats.

Social acceptance of the measures required for conservation of Bicknell’s Thrush habitat will depend on the effectiveness of efforts to raise public awareness about the existence of the species and its habitat requirements. In addition to reaching the general public, it will also be necessary to encourage participation by individuals and organizations dedicated to environmental conservation in data collection through species surveying and monitoring activities. Some public participation initiatives already exist, such as the High Elevation Landbird Program and eBird.

Legislation and policy

The general prohibitions set out in the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1994 and its regulations also protect the adults, young, nests and eggs of the Bicknell’s Thrush throughout Canada, regardless of land ownership. During the breeding season, potentially destructive or disturbing activities should be avoided in areas where the species is likely to be found (Environment Canada 2014).

Throughout the species’ range, promotion of compliance with legislation and policies should be a priority. Currently, various legal means exist in order to protect the Bicknell’s Thrush and its habitat in Canada (e.g., species at risk legislation). It is necessary to continue implementing the existing environmental policies and programs on the reduction of the pollutants responsible for acid precipitation and the accumulation of mercury, as well as existing policies and programs on development in the natural environment (e.g., wind farms, telecommunication towers), and to develop appropriate policies and programs where deficiencies exist. It is essential that these means be used to their full potential for the protection of the Bicknell’s Thrush.

7 Critical habitat

SARA defines critical habitat as “... habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed species.” Paragraph 41(1)(c) of SARA requires that recovery strategies include an identification of the species’ critical habitat, to the extent possible, as well as examples of activities that are likely to result in its destruction. Under subparagraph 41(1)(c)(1) of SARA, the recovery strategy must also include a schedule of studies to identify the critical habitat of the species where available information is inadequate, as in the case of the Bicknell’s Thrush.

7.1 Identification of the species' critical habitat

On the basis of the best information available, the critical habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush is partially identified in this recovery strategy. Existing knowledge is insufficient to identify all the critical habitat considered necessary for the species’ recovery. For example, information is needed on the habitat used in the post-breeding period and on the area of habitat necessary for the recovery and survival of the Bicknell’s Thrush at the landscape scale. As new information becomes available, the boundaries of the critical habitat could be revised and new critical habitat units could be identified. A schedule of the studies necessary to complete the identification of critical habitat of the species (section 7.2) is also included.

Critical habitat is identified at locations where the criteria of habitat occupancy and the biophysical attributes of suitable habitat, as explained in the following sections, are met.

7.1.1 Habitat Occupancy

The distribution of the Bicknell’s Thrush can be described as contagious, in the sense that individuals tend to occur in relatively large numbers with other Bicknell’s Thrushes, rather than being uniformly distributed across suitable habitat (Y. Aubry pers. comm. 2016). The home ranges of males largely overlap and are distributed around the home range of one or more females (Collins 2007; Aubry et al. 2011). The presence of one bird therefore suggests that several other birds are also present in the surrounding area. As a result, it is important to define habitat occupancy using known records of the species as a reference point.

Bicknell’s Thrush habitat consists of dense forest stands where it is difficult to obtain observations that would confirm breeding. Most existing data are records of birds heard during the breeding season, which corresponds to possible nesting bird behaviour (see Appendix B for definitions). Habitat occupancy will be established using possible, probable and confirmed breeding records (see Appendix B for definitions). Such records are good indicators of habitat occupancy and suitability.

Habitat occupancy will be determined on the basis of all breeding records obtained during at least one breeding season (June 1 to August 15) in suitable habitat. Given that the Bicknell’s Thrush was elevated to the rank of species in 1995 (American Ornithologists’ Union 1995) and that this triggered, during the same period, the start of inventory work on its breeding range in Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, all known records of breeding from 1995 to 2014 are used to define habitat occupancy.

7.1.2 Biophysical Attributes of Suitable Habitat

This criterion for identifying critical habitat refers to the biophysical attributes of the various habitats in which the species can engage in activity associated with breeding (e.g., courtship, territory defence, nest building and foraging) in Canada. Given that the probability of occupancy of a site by the Bicknell’s Thrush is associated with the interaction between habitat quality at the local scale and habitat quality at the landscape scale (Frey et al. 2012), it is important to take both scales into consideration in defining the characteristics of suitable habitat. The local scale is defined by the habitat characteristics that are measured at the breeding site. The landscape scale relates to the spatial-temporal dynamics of the biological and physical components affecting vast regions.

The biophysical attributes of suitable habitat required by the Bicknell’s Thrush to carry out its activities at the local scale are generally defined by the presence of conifer stands (comprising 75% of stand basal area) or very dense, relatively unfragmented mixedwood stands dominated by Balsam Fir (comprising 50–75% of stand basal area [MRNF 2011]). The biophysical attributes at the local scale correspond to the following definitions for each of the three types of breeding habitat found at the landscape scale:

  • High-elevation montane forest (elevation of ≥ 750 m in New Brunswick, ≥ 440 m in Nova Scotia and ≥ 600 m in Quebec)
    • Dense coniferous forests (between 10,000 and 50,000 stems/ha), typically not managed for forest harvesting. They can be characterized by Balsam Fir stands affected by regenerating fir waves. On some sites, such as exposed ridgelines or along edges of human-created openings, they can be characterized by the presence of stunted firs due to high winds and heavy winter snow and ice accumulation. These stands are also characterized by the low height of mature trees and by a low growth rate, due to the harsh climate conditions at high elevations. In these environments, Balsam Fir can sometimes be accompanied, to a lesser extent, by White Birch (Betula papyrifera), Red Spruce, White Spruce (Picea glauca), Black Spruce, Mountain Ash and other deciduous species.
  • High-elevation managed forests (minimum elevation ≥ 380 m)
    • Dense conifer stands (10,000 to 50,000 stems/ha), generally managed for forest harvesting, characterized by the presence of standing conifer snags and dense balsam fir regeneration following human or natural disturbance, from the sapling stage, Footnote10 with a height of over 2 to 3 m, to a stage at which stand structure and density become unsuitable. At some sites in the Maritimes, a high density of small white birch stems and the presence of leaf litter on the ground appear to be important components of the species’ habitat (Nixon et al. 2001; Campbell and Whittam 2006);
      Or
    • Dense (10,000 to 50,000 stems/ha) mixedwood stands (50% to 75% conifers), generally managed for logging purposes, characterized by regeneration dominated by balsam fir following clearcutting, fire or other disturbances.
  • Coastal lowland forest (elevation < 380 m)
    • Dense (10,000 to 50,000 stems/ha) maritime spruce-fir forests, generally harvested to only a small extent or not at all, located where cool sea breezes and high precipitation levels reproduce the characteristics of high-elevation forests.

At the site scale, habitat that is currently suitable for breeding Bicknell’s Thrushes can become unsuitable for breeding as the stand ages or if it is subject to natural or human disturbance. Due to these spatial-temporal habitat dynamics and to the fact that the species tends to have contagious distributions (Y. Aubry pers. comm. 2016), it is critical to maintain availability of suitable habitat not only at the scale of the breeding site, but also at the landscape scale. Using the landscape scale makes it possible to maintain suitable habitat at two scales. It must also include habitats that, although they do not currently have biophysical attributes suitable to the species, have the potential to evolve towards suitable habitat, in order to ensure constant availability of suitable habitat in time and space. As a result, stands within a 5 km radius of a known record of the Bicknell’s Thrush that are dominated by balsam fir, but whose stem density or structure is not suitable because the trees are too young or too old, are also considered critical habitat if they have the potential to regenerate into suitable habitat as part of the natural succession process. Similarly, areas within a 5 km radius of a known record that have been disturbed (e.g. logging, windthrow) and that are likely to regenerate into a type of stand with appropriate species composition and stem density are also considered critical habitat.

To ensure that the recovery objectives are met, a minimum area of critical habitat must be maintained at the landscape scale, and appropriate landscape-scale conservation objectives must be developed. The current lack of knowledge means that the minimal habitat area and appropriate conservation objectives cannot be precisely determined. An activity was included in the schedule of studies (section 7.2) to fill this knowledge gap. This information is also important to ensure a better assessment of what constitutes destruction of critical habitat.

As mentioned above, at the landscape scale, the area of suitable habitat that must be considered critical habitat for high-elevation montane forests, for high-elevation managed forests and for coastal lowland forests remains unknown. A study on the Bicknell’s Thrush in a high-elevation montane forest environment in Vermont estimated that when the proportion of suitable Bicknell’s Thrush habitat within 5 km of a roughly 600-ha patch of suitable habitat reaches a minimum threshold of 0.10 (10%), the probability of occupancy by the species is approximately 1.0 (100%) (Frey et al., 2012). This study indicates that the probability of occupancy of suitable habitat depends on the interaction between habitat conditions at the local (breeding site) scale and those at the landscape scale. Although the study was carried out only in a high-elevation montane forest environment and although it is impossible to rigorously apply the conditions of the study by Frey et al. (2012), it was decided that a radius of 5 km around a breeding record would be adopted as a boundary for identifying critical habitat, for the three types of Bicknell’s Thrush breeding habitat. The use of an area of 5 km around possible, probable and confirmed Bicknell’s Thrush breeding records corresponds favourably to the potential habitat areas identified by the habitat model of the Vermont Center for Ecostudies (Lambert et al. 2005) when applied to Canada (Y. Aubry, pers. comm. 2015), and thus supports the choice of a radius of 5 km as a boundary for critical habitat. It has been determined that a 5 km radius is likely to ensure the long-term presence of suitable habitat for the species, in a context where the distribution of the habitat is dynamic in time and space. An activity designed to determine whether using a 5 km radius for the identification of critical habitat captures a large enough area to include all the suitable habitat was entered in the schedule of studies (section 7.2).

The biophysical attributes of habitat during the post-breeding period are not known. An activity was entered in the schedule of studies (section 7.2) to indicate the need to develop further knowledge in this area before we can identify critical habitat for this period. The same is true for knowledge with respect to the species’ social structure. A better understanding of the influence of the species’ social behaviour on habitat selection and use could improve the identification of critical habitat.

7.1.3 Application of Critical Habitat Identification Criteria

Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush is partially identified in this recovery strategy. It corresponds to areas of suitable habitat and areas with the potential to become suitable habitat that are contained within a 5 km radius polygon centred on all coordinates representing a possible, probable or confirmed breeding record obtained between June 1 and August 15, from 1995 to 2014. When 5 km radius polygons overlap, they are merged into a single polygon. Each of the polygons represents a critical habitat unit. A schedule of studies (Table 4) outlines the activities required to complete the identification of critical habitat.

The application of the criteria described in sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 identifies 58 critical habitat units for Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada: 43 in Quebec, 11 in New Brunswick and 4 in Nova Scotia. The critical habitat units for Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada are presented in Appendix C (tables C-1, C-2 and C-3 and in figures C-1 to C-12). Critical habitat for Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada occurs within the polygons shaded in yellow shown on each map, where the criteria and methodology described in this section for identifying critical habitat are met. More detailed information on critical habitat to support protection of the species and its habitat may be requested on a need-to-know basis by contacting Environment and Climate Change Canada – Canadian Wildlife Service at ec.planificationduretablissement-recoveryplanning.ec@canada.ca.

Existing human structures (e.g., communication towers, wind turbines, roads, houses, ski runs) and other areas that do not have the biophysical characteristics of suitable habitat for Bicknell’s Thrush are not identified as critical habitat.

7.2 Schedule of studies to identify critical habitat

Current knowledge is insufficient to identify all critical habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush. Table 4 describes the activities that must be carried out to complete the critical habitat identification or to specify the boundaries. It is important to verify whether the decision to identify critical habitat on the basis of a 5 km radius is adequate for achieving the population and distribution objectives. It is also important to establish the minimum area of suitable habitat to be maintained at the landscape scale for the three types of breeding habitat, to ensure that the critical habitat can fully play its role in the recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush. The critical habitat identification will be updated in a revised version of the recovery strategy or in an action plan, once sufficient new knowledge has been acquired to determine the critical habitat required to meet the objectives.

Table 4. Schedule of studies to identify critical habitat
Description of Activity Rationale Timeline
Verify whether a 5 km radius around a record is adequate for achieving the population and distribution objectives. This activity is required in order to better support the decision to identify critical habitat on the basis of a 5 km radius. It will make it possible to determine whether the radius should be increased. 2016-2021
Establish the minimum area of suitable habitat to be maintained for the three types of breeding habitat. This activity is required in order to determine, for each of the three types of breeding habitat, the minimum area of suitable habitat to be maintained to achieve the population and distribution objectives. 2016-2021
Establish landscape-scale habitat conservation criteria. This activity is required in order to establish the best conservation criteria or action levels to be implemented and to subsequently verify their effectiveness, which could have an impact on critical habitat identification. 2016-2021
Increase knowledge of the social structure of the species. This activity is required to specify how the behaviour of the Bicknell’s Thrush influences habitat selection, use and productivity. This knowledge will contribute to specifying the area of critical habitat required to achieve the population and distribution objectives. 2016-2021
Characterize suitable habitat used by the species during the post-breeding period and verify its use. This activity is required to identify additional critical habitat units, as there is currently very little information for identifying and characterizing the habitat used by this species during the post-breeding period. 2016-2021

7.3 Activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat

An understanding of what constitutes destruction of critical habitat is required for the protection and management of critical habitat. Destruction is determined on a case by case basis. Destruction occurs when part of the critical habitat is degraded, either permanently or temporarily, such that it can no longer serve its function when needed by the species. Destruction may result from a single activity or multiple activities at one point in time or from the cumulative effects of one or more activities over time.

The breeding habitat of Bicknell’s Thrush consists of dense forest (over 10,000 stems/ha). Activities likely to reduce stem density may destroy or degrade critical habitat. Activities that lead to the elimination of dense fir stands also have the same effect.

The critical habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush in high-elevation managed forests is, by definition, subject to forest management activities, which can have effects similar to those of natural disturbance regimes by generating conditions favourable to the creation of suitable habitat. It is important that forest management practices take the needs of the Bicknell’s Thrush into account and that sufficient suitable habitat be maintained within critical habitat units to support the achievement of the population and distribution objectives.

Given the dynamic nature of the critical habitat of the Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada, areas of critical habitat that lose their suitability due to forest aging or human activity can be replaced by other habitat areas that are currently unsuitable but that have the potential to become suitable. This can occur either through natural vegetation succession or through the implementation of management measures that directly favour the presence of dense fir stands (between 10,000 and 50,000 stems/ha). It is therefore important that the planning of human activity within the 5 km radius area containing critical habitat be carried out with the objective of maintaining, at all times, a critical habitat area that can contribute to achieving the population and distribution objectives.

Efforts should also be made to maintain dense fir stands in the high-elevation managed forests currently occupied by the Bicknell’s Thrush for as long as possible to ensure high-quality breeding habitat. Where human activity, such as forest management, is present, it is important that planned forest treatments maintain the availability of dense fir stands (over 10,000 stems/ha when the stand reaches the sapling stage) within the boundaries of the critical habitat over time. To this end, appropriate forest treatments must be implemented at suitable sites to promote regeneration of dense fir stands.

The following list provides examples of activities that are likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat. The activities described in Table 5 are not an exhaustive list. They were selected on the basis of the threats assessed and described in section 4 (Threats) of this recovery strategy. For some of the activities, the determination of thresholds could make it possible to more accurately describe the various aspects likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat by a specific activity.

Table 5. Examples of activities likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat
Description of Activity Description of Effect Details of Effect
Pre-commercial thinning

Direct impact on critical habitat, whether it is considered suitable habitat or potential suitable habitat.

Given that the Bicknell’s Thrush occurs in forests with a high stem density (between 10,000 and 50,000 stems/ha), a forest whose stem density has been reduced to less than 10,000 stems/ha no longer has the biophysical characteristics of critical habitat for the species.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, pre-commercial thinning outside the breeding season may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of forest operations ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Pre-commercial thinning carried out in habitat known to have been recently occupied by Bicknell’s Thrushes would be considered an activity likely to destroy critical habitat.

Clearcutting and selection cutting

Direct impact on critical habitat by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available.

Certain types of treatments can reduce stem density and create canopy openings, which reduces the area or modifies the suitable breeding habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush. The larger the area treated, the higher the habitat loss and the greater the risk of homogenization of the landscape.

In mixedwood stands (dominated by fir), forest harvesting can favour the regeneration of deciduous species to the detriment of fir.

Following certain treatments (partial cuts, cleaning and release) in dense fir forests, stand composition can be modified due to the increased presence of spruce or deciduous species, which alters the biophysical characteristics of the critical habitat.

These types of treatment (e.g., clearcutting) are normally not carried out in suitable habitat. However, the planning of these treatments will influence the availability of suitable habitat at the landscape scale in time and space.

These types of treatment can have a direct impact on the availability of potential suitable habitat if they result in treated areas that no longer have suitable tree species or density.  

Degradation or destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, clearcutting or selection cutting may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of forest operations ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Control of insect pests (e.g., Spruce Budworm)

Direct impact on critical habitat, whether it is considered suitable habitat or potential suitable habitat.

Forest activities designed to reduce regeneration of fir in order to reduce the intensity and size of habitat areas affected by insect pests may lead to a reduction in the area of critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush.

Degradation or destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, the control of insect pests may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of forest operations ensures the availability of sufficient critical habitat over time and within the boundaries of the critical habitat.

Plantations

Direct impact on critical habitat considered potential suitable habitat.

Plantations result in a species or stem density that does not create the biophysical attributes required for critical habitat.

A direct impact of plantations is that they affect the availability of critical habitat at the landscape scale in time and space.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, plantations and the application of herbicides (see also the following activity) may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of forest operations ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the boundaries of the critical habitat.

Tending and sanitation operations

Direct impact on critical habitat considered potential suitable habitat and on the availability of critical habitat considered suitable habitat.

Tending and sanitation operations (mechanical stand release and application of herbicides) are often done in plantations or regenerating natural stands. When these activities are carried out in regenerating natural stands, they reduce stand density and the availability of suitable habitat.

Tending and sanitation operations in plantations do not have an impact on critical habitat since plantations are not considered suitable habitat or potential suitable habitat.

The application of herbicides and other vegetation control measures also have an impact on stand density, on the species present in the stands immediately following treatments and on stand development. The amount of suitable habitat and potential suitable habitat can therefore be affected.

Degradation or destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, tending and sanitation operations carried out outside the breeding season may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of forest operations ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

A vegetation management activity carried out in habitat known to have been recently occupied by Bicknell’s Thrushes would be considered an activity likely to destroy critical habitat.

Forest road / access road construction

Direct impact on critical habitat by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available.

Such infrastructure creates openings in the habitat and causes habitat fragmentation. There is also a net loss of suitable habitat area. Habitat alterations become permanent and irreversible.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, the construction of forest roads or access roads outside the breeding season may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term land use planning ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Existing forest roads and access roads are not included in critical habitat identification; as a result, road maintenance work is not considered an activity that is likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat.

Transmission line construction

Direct impact on critical habitat by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available.

Such infrastructure creates openings in the habitat and causes habitat fragmentation. There is also a net loss of suitable habitat area. Habitat alterations become permanent and irreversible.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, the construction of transmission lines outside the breeding season may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term land-use planning ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Maintenance of existing transmission lines is not considered an activity that is likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat.

Clearing for wind turbine and communications tower corridors

Direct impact on critical habitat by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available.

Such infrastructure creates openings in the habitat and causes habitat fragmentation. There is also a net loss of suitable habitat area. Habitat alterations become permanent and irreversible.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, clearing for wind turbine and communications tower corridors outside the breeding period may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term planning of land-use development ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Maintenance of already wooded areas around wind farms and communications towers is not considered an activity that is likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat.

Trail development, ski area development

Direct impact on critical habitat by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available.

The creation of trails or ski runs requires the felling of stands in areas targeted for this type of development.

Habitat alterations become permanent and irreversible.

Destruction of critical habitat.

Once the landscape-scale habitat requirements are determined, the development of trails or ski areas outside the breeding season may not result in the destruction of critical habitat if long-term land use planning ensures the availability of sufficient suitable habitat over time and within the critical habitat boundaries.

Maintenance of already wooded areas around trails and ski resorts is not considered an activity that is likely to result in the destruction of critical habitat.

8 Measuring progress

The performance indicators presented below provide a way to define and measure progress toward achieving the population and distribution objectives.

The performance indicators for the recovery of the Bicknell’s Thrush are as follows:

In the short term

  1. The decline in the Bicknell’s Thrush population has been slowed such that the Canadian population of this species has not decreased by more than 10% from 2016 to 2026.
  2. No net loss has occurred in its biological area of occupancy throughout its Canadian range from 2016 to 2026.

In the long term

  1. After 2026, a positive 10-year demographic trend, measured by BBS and other available data (e.g., targeted surveys) is achieved (i.e., the population is increasing).
  2. After 2016, the size of the species’ biological area of occupancy increases throughout its Canadian range.

9 Statement on action plans

One or more action plans detailing the measures to be taken to implement this recovery strategy will be posted on the Species at Risk Public Registry within five years after the posting of the final recovery strategy.

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Mugica, S. A. 2008. Cuba. Pages 119-142, in Important Bird Areas in the Caribbean: Key Sites for Conservation (D.A. Wege and V. Anadon-Irizarry, Eds.). BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

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Rimmer, C.C. and K.P. McFarland. 2000. Migrant stopover and postfledging dispersal at a montane forest site in Vermont. Wilson Bulletin 112:124-136.

Rimmer, C.C., K.P. McFarland, W.G. Ellison and J.E. Goetz. 2001. Bicknell's Thrush (Catharus bicknelli), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America.

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Rompré, G., Y. Aubry, V. Connolly, J-P.L. Savard and G. Seutin. 1999 (unpublished). Répartition, abondance et préférences écologiques de la Grive de Bicknell (Catharus bicknelli) au Québec. Canadian Wildlife Service. 56 p.

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Zimmerling, J.R., A.C. Pomeroy, M.V. d'Entremont and C.M. Francis. 2013. Canadian Estimate of Bird Mortality Due to Collisions and Direct Habitat Loss Associated with Wind Turbine Developments. Avian Conservation and Ecology 8(2):10.

Appendix A: NatureServe conservation status rank definitions

The table below lists the conservation status ranks used by NatureServe and their definitions. These status ranks are appended to the letter “G” (global rank, applies to the entire range), “N” (national rank, applies on a national scale) or “S” (subnational rank, for a province or state). A numeric range rank (e.g., S1S2) is used to indicate uncertainty about the status of the species or community in question.

Rank table
Rank Definition
1 Critically Imperiled – Species or community that is extremely rare (often five or fewer occurrences) or is affected by very steep declines or other factors that could result in its extirpation.
2 Imperiled – Species or community that is rare because of its very restricted range, very few populations (often fewer than 20), steep population declines or other factors that could result in its extirpation.
3 Vulnerable – Species or community with a very restricted range and relatively few populations (often 80 or fewer) that has experienced recent and widespread declines and is affected by other factors that could result in its extirpation.
4 Apparently Secure – Species or community that is uncommon but not rare. There is some cause for long-term concern because of declines or other factors.
5 Secure – Species or community that is common, widespread and abundant in the jurisdiction.
B Breeding – Conservation status refers to the breeding population of the species in the nation or state/province.
N Nonbreeding – Conservation status refers to the non-breeding population of the species in the nation or state/province.
M Migrant – Migrant species occurring regularly on migration at particular migratory stopovers or staging areas where the species might warrant conservation attention. Conservation status refers to the aggregating transient population of the species in the nation or state/province.
NR Species or community that is unranked because its status has not yet been assessed.
NA Not Applicable – The species or community is not a suitable target for conservation activities.
U Unassessed – Species not assessed due to a lack of information or substantially conflicting information about status or trends.
? Inexact or Uncertain – Denotes inexact or uncertain numeric rank.

Appendix B: Standard breeding bird atlas codes

Possible breeding
Atlas coded Description
H Species observed in suitable nesting habitat during its breeding season.
S Individual singing or producing other sounds associated with breeding (e.g., calls or drumming) in suitable nesting habitat during the species' breeding season.
Probable breeding
Atlas coded Description
P Pair observed in their breeding season in suitable nesting habitat
T Permanent territory presumed through registration of territorial behaviour (song, etc.), or the occurrence of an adult bird, on at least two days, a week or more apart, at the same place, in suitable nesting habitat during the breeding season.
D Courtship or display between a male and a female or two males including courtship, feeding or copulation.
V Visiting probable nest site.
A Agitated behaviour or anxiety calls of an adult indicating nest-site or young in the vicinity.
B Brood patch on adult female or cloacal protuberance on adult male.
Confirmed breeding
Atlas coded Description
NB Nest building or carrying nest materials.
DD Distraction display or injury feigning.
NU Used nest or egg shells found (occupied or laid within the period of the survey). Use only for unique and unmistakable nests or shells
FY Recently fledged young or downy young.
AE Adults leaving or entering nest sites in circumstances indicating occupied nest (including nests the contents of which cannot be seen).
FS Adult carrying fecal sac.
CF Adult carrying food for young during its breeding season.
NE Nest containing eggs.
NY Nest containing young seen or heard.

h Atlas codes and descriptions can vary slightly from one province to another but convey similar meanings. Atlas codes for possible breeding are not presented here.

Appendix C: Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Canada

Table C-1. Description of the 10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grids and Critical Habitat Units for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Quebec. Critical habitat refers to areas where the criteria set out in section 7.1 are met.
10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grid Square IDi UTM Grid Square Coordinatesj
Easting
UTM Grid Square Coordinates
Northing
Critical Habitat Unit Area (ha)k Land Tenurel
18VS46 440000 5160000 28 Non-federal
18VS47 440000 5170000 99 Non-federal
18VS56 450000 5160000 3093 Non-federal
18VS57 450000 5170000 4675 Non-federal
18WS21 520000 5110000 124 Non-federal
18WS22 520000 5120000 703 Non-federal
18WS31 530000 5110000 2818 Non-federal
18WS32 530000 5120000 6001 Non-federal
18WS41 540000 5110000 35 Non-federal
18WS42 540000 5120000 189 Non-federal
18WS43 540000 5130000 3216 Non-federal
18WS44 540000 5140000 2649 Non-federal
18WS51 550000 5110000 2776 Non-federal
18WS52 550000 5120000 5808 Non-federal
18WS53 550000 5130000 1899 Non-federal
18WS54 550000 5140000 3789 Non-federal
18WS62 560000 5120000 23 Non-federal
18WS63 560000 5130000 1241 Non-federal
18WS64 560000 5140000 4610 Non-federal
18XQ89 680000 4990000 1481 Non-federal
18XQ98 690000 4980000 51 Non-federal
18XQ99 690000 4990000 7105 Non-federal
18XR90 690000 5000000 71 Non-federal
19CL21 320000 5010000 634 Non-federal
19CL23 320000 5030000 2695 Non-federal
19CL24 320000 5040000 76 Non-federal
19CL31 330000 5010000 7519 Non-federal
19CL32 330000 5020000 2295 Non-federal
19CL33 330000 5030000 8863 Non-federal
19CL34 330000 5040000 960 Non-federal
19CL41 340000 5010000 3991 Non-federal
19CL42 340000 5020000 6547 Non-federal
19CL51 350000 5010000 9894 Non-federal
19CL52 350000 5020000 4507 Non-federal
19CL62 360000 5020000 3044 Non-federal
19CL63 360000 5030000 2465 Non-federal
19CL72 370000 5020000 4627 Non-federal
19CL73 370000 5030000 5044 Non-federal
19CL75 370000 5050000 3801 Non-federal
19CL76 370000 5060000 2034 Non-federal
19CL85 380000 5050000 1388 Non-federal
19CL86 380000 5060000 3567 Non-federal
19CL87 380000 5070000 681 Non-federal
19CL96 390000 5060000 5589 Non-federal
19CL97 390000 5070000 1396 Non-federal
19CM75 370000 5150000 171 Non-federal
19CM76 370000 5160000 76 Non-federal
19CM84 380000 5140000 5 Non-federal
19CM85 380000 5150000 9095 Non-federal
19CM86 380000 5160000 7981 Non-federal
19CM87 380000 5170000 77 Non-federal
19CM95 390000 5150000 4191 Non-federal
19CM96 390000 5160000 9043 Non-federal
19CM97 390000 5170000 3941 Non-federal
19CN00 300000 5200000 6 Federal
19CN01 300000 5210000 7134 Federal
19CN11 310000 5210000 738 Non-federal
19CN17 310000 5270000 3167 Non-federal
19CN18 310000 5280000 3599 Non-federal
19CN23 320000 5230000 180 Non-federal
19CN24 320000 5240000 1933 Non-federal
19CN25 320000 5250000 2221 Non-federal
19CN26 320000 5260000 7915 Non-federal
19CN27 320000 5270000 6839 Non-federal
19CN28 320000 5280000 3137 Non-federal
19CN32 330000 5220000 48 Non-federal
19CN33 330000 5230000 9266 Non-federal
19CN34 330000 5240000 9643 Non-federal
19CN35 330000 5250000 7422 Non-federal
19CN36 330000 5260000 7749 Non-federal
19CN37 330000 5270000 5484 Non-federal
19CN38 330000 5280000 0 Non-federal
19CN43 340000 5230000 4751 Non-federal
19CN44 340000 5240000 9561 Non-federal
19CN45 340000 5250000 6096 Non-federal
19CN46 340000 5260000 2369 Non-federal
19CN47 340000 5270000 3506 Non-federal
19CN48 340000 5280000 7570 Non-federal
19CN49 340000 5290000 2342 Non-federal
19CN52 350000 5220000 132 Non-federal
19CN53 350000 5230000 8738 Non-federal
19CN54 350000 5240000 9998 Non-federal
19CN55 350000 5250000 5633 Non-federal
19CN57 350000 5270000 2833 Non-federal
19CN58 350000 5280000 2466 Non-federal
19CN59 350000 5290000 2432 Non-federal
19CN63 360000 5230000 1129 Non-federal
19CN64 360000 5240000 6917 Non-federal
19CN65 360000 5250000 2978 Non-federal
19CN68 360000 5280000 4503 Non-federal
19CN69 360000 5290000 9151 Non-federal
19CN77 370000 5270000 2694 Non-federal
19CN78 370000 5280000 9790 Non-federal
19CN79 370000 5290000 10000 Non-federal
19CN87 380000 5270000 753 Non-federal
19CN88 380000 5280000 1276 Non-federal
19CN89 380000 5290000 5283 Non-federal
19CN99 390000 5290000 219 Non-federal
19CP11 310000 5310000 4859 Federal
19CP12 310000 5320000 889 Non-federal
19CP21 320000 5310000 3383 Federal
19CP22 320000 5320000 200 Non-federal
19CP30 330000 5300000 149 Non-federal
19CP31 330000 5310000 8366 Non-federal
19CP32 330000 5320000 1688 Non-federal
19CP40 340000 5300000 4728 Non-federal
19CP41 340000 5310000 8697 Non-federal
19CP42 340000 5320000 3523 Non-federal
19CP50 350000 5300000 2337 Non-federal
19CP51 350000 5310000 1006 Non-federal
19CP52 350000 5320000 291 Non-federal
19CP58 350000 5380000 636 Non-federal
19CP59 350000 5390000 30 Non-federal
19CP60 360000 5300000 9761 Non-federal
19CP61 360000 5310000 7730 Non-federal
19CP67 360000 5370000 246 Non-federal
19CP68 360000 5380000 9545 Non-federal
19CP69 360000 5390000 2774 Non-federal
19CP70 370000 5300000 3612 Non-federal
19CP71 370000 5310000 490 Non-federal
19CP77 370000 5370000 4697 Non-federal
19CP78 370000 5380000 6788 Federal
19CP79 370000 5390000 249 Non-federal
19CP80 380000 5300000 6739 Non-federal
19CP81 380000 5310000 228 Non-federal
19CP82 380000 5320000 249 Non-federal
19CP87 380000 5370000 3530 Non-federal
19CP88 380000 5380000 4487 Non-federal
19CP90 390000 5300000 4449 Non-federal
19CP91 390000 5310000 6005 Non-federal
19CP92 390000 5320000 6622 Non-federal
19CP96 390000 5360000 180 Non-federal
19CP97 390000 5370000 3867 Non-federal
19CP98 390000 5380000 2383 Non-federal
19CQ61 360000 5410000 775 Non-federal
19CQ70 370000 5400000 491 Non-federal
19CQ71 370000 5410000 6583 Non-federal
19DM06 400000 5160000 576 Non-federal
19DM07 400000 5170000 503 Non-federal
19DP01 400000 5310000 556 Non-federal
19DP02 400000 5320000 1818 Non-federal
19DP06 400000 5360000 5024 Non-federal
19DP07 400000 5370000 9748 Non-federal
19DP08 400000 5380000 8965 Non-federal
19DP16 410000 5360000 3648 Non-federal
19DP17 410000 5370000 5101 Non-federal
19DP18 410000 5380000 5267 Non-federal
19DS93 490000 5630000 2518 Non-federal
19DS94 490000 5640000 850 Non-federal
19EP85 580000 5350000 339 Non-federal
19EP86 580000 5360000 3388 Non-federal
19EP95 590000 5350000 419 Non-federal
19EP96 590000 5360000 4736 Non-federal
19ER07 500000 5570000 138 Non-federal
19ER08 500000 5580000 4228 Non-federal
19ER17 510000 5570000 81 Non-federal
19ER18 510000 5580000 3398 Non-federal
19ES03 500000 5630000 3288 Non-federal
19ES04 500000 5640000 1190 Non-federal
19FP49 640000 5390000 2989 Non-federal
19FP59 650000 5390000 3710 Non-federal
19FP69 660000 5390000 114 Non-federal
19FP97 690000 5370000 5084 Non-federal
19FP98 690000 5380000 2092 Non-federal
19FQ40 640000 5400000 2582 Non-federal
19FQ50 650000 5400000 9746 Non-federal
19FQ51 650000 5410000 1860 Non-federal
19FQ60 660000 5400000 8458 Non-federal
19FQ61 660000 5410000 7771 Non-federal
19FQ62 660000 5420000 397 Non-federal
19FQ71 670000 5410000 6886 Non-federal
19FQ72 670000 5420000 1988 Non-federal
19FQ81 680000 5410000 2382 Non-federal
19FQ82 680000 5420000 8793 Non-federal
19FQ83 680000 5430000 30 Non-federal
19FQ91 690000 5410000 6205 Non-federal
19FQ92 690000 5420000 9456 Non-federal
19FQ93 690000 5430000 19 Non-federal
19FS01 600000 5610000 8 Non-federal
19FS02 600000 5620000 6459 Non-federal
19FS03 600000 5630000 3258 Non-federal
19FS12 610000 5620000 3001 Non-federal
19FS13 610000 5630000 767 Non-federal
19FT01 600000 5710000 4644 Non-federal
19FT02 600000 5720000 2580 Non-federal
19FT11 610000 5710000 466 Non-federal
19FT12 610000 5720000 158 Non-federal
19GP07 700000 5370000 4131 Non-federal
19GP08 700000 5380000 4893 Non-federal
19GP17 710000 5370000 62 Non-federal
19GP18 710000 5380000 119 Non-federal
19GQ00 700000 5400000 34 Non-federal
19GQ01 700000 5410000 5002 Non-federal
19GQ02 700000 5420000 8979 Non-federal
19GQ10 710000 5400000 19 Non-federal
19GQ11 710000 5410000 8075 Non-federal
19GQ12 710000 5420000 8640 Non-federal
19GQ13 710000 5430000 4711 Non-federal
19GQ20 720000 5399999 4 Non-federal
19GQ21 720000 5410000 95 Non-federal
20KU99 290000 5390000 4791 Non-federal
20KV70 279330 5400000 12 Non-federal
20KV71 279727 5410000 94 Non-federal
20KV80 280000 5400000 1013 Non-federal
20KV81 279997 5410000 8229 Non-federal
20KV82 280119 5420000 5669 Non-federal
20KV83 280514 5430000 7542 Non-federal
20KV84 280909 5439999 0 Non-federal
20KV90 290000 5400000 149 Non-federal
20KV91 290000 5410000 5544 Non-federal
20KV92 290000 5420000 4588 Non-federal
20KV93 290000 5430000 4324 Non-federal
20KV94 290000 5440000 2 Non-federal
20LU09 300000 5390000 2880 Non-federal
20LV00 300000 5400000 37 Non-federal
20LV01 300000 5410000 1599 Non-federal
20LV02 300000 5420000 3949 Non-federal
20LV03 300000 5430000 1448 Non-federal
20LV05 300000 5450000 3689 Non-federal
20LV11 310000 5410000 2850 Non-federal
20LV12 310000 5420000 10007 Non-federal
20LV13 310000 5430000 5851 Non-federal
20LV15 310000 5450000 4153 Non-federal
20LV21 320000 5410000 50 Non-federal
20LV22 320000 5420000 5615 Non-federal
20LV23 320000 5430000 1936 Non-federal
20LV63 360000 5430000 26 Non-federal
20LV73 370000 5430000 8480 Non-federal
20LV74 370000 5440000 521 Non-federal
20LV83 380000 5430000 804 Non-federal
20MA78 470000 5580000 97 Non-federal
20MA79 470000 5590000 116 Non-federal
20MA88 480000 5580000 3699 Non-federal
20MA89 480000 5590000 3966 Non-federal
20MU06 400000 5360000 13 Non-federal
20MU07 400000 5370000 6161 Non-federal
20MU08 400000 5380000 542 Non-federal
20MU17 410000 5370000 3236 Federal
20MU18 410000 5380000 47 Non-federal
20MV00 400000 5400000 5050 Federal (Forillon National Park of Canada)
20MV01 400000 5410000 4606 Federal (Forillon National Park of Canada)
20MV10 410000 5400000 3192 Federal (Forillon National Park of Canada)
20MV11 410000 5410000 572 Federal (Forillon National Park of Canada)

i The grid square ID is based on the standard UTM Military Grid Reference System, where the first two digits represent the UTM Zone, the following two letters indicate the 100 x 100 km standardized UTM grid, and the last two digits represent the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat unit. This unique alphanumeric code is based on the methodology used for the Breeding Bird Atlases of Canada (see web site for more information on breeding bird atlases).

j The listed coordinates are a cartographic representation of where critical habitat can be found, presented as the southwest corner of the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat. The coordinates may not fall within critical habitat and are provided as a general location only.

k The area presented is the sum of the area of critical habitat units within the UTM grid square (rounded up to the nearest 1 ha). It is an approximation obtained by drawing a 5 km radius around each observation meeting the habitat occupancy criteria (section 7.1.1). The exact area of critical habitat may be significantly less depending on where the criteria for critical habitat are met (see section 7.1). Field verification is required to determine the precise area of critical habitat.

l Land tenure is provided as an approximation of the types of land ownership that exist at the critical habitat units and should be used for guidance purposes only. Accurate land tenure will require cross referencing critical habitat boundaries with surveyed land parcel information.

Table C-2. Description of the 10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grids and Critical Habitat Units for the Bicknell’s Thrush in New Brunswick. Critical habitat refers to areas where the criteria set out in section 7.1 are met.
10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grid Square IDm UTM Grid Square Coordinatesn
Easting
UTM Grid Square Coordinatesn
Northing
Critical Habitat Unit Area (ha)o Land Tenurep
19EN46 540000 5260000 773 Non-federal
19EN47 540000 5270000 3624 Non-federal
19EN49 540000 5290000 2696 Non-federal
19EN56 550000 5260000 643 Non-federal
19EN57 550000 5270000 3517 Non-federal
19EN58 550000 5280000 15 Non-federal
19EN59 550000 5290000 8271 Non-federal
19EN68 560000 5280000 1394 Non-federal
19EN69 560000 5290000 7892 Non-federal
19EN77 570000 5270000 726 Non-federal
19EN78 570000 5280000 9351 Non-federal
19EN79 570000 5290000 8281 Non-federal
19EN87 580000 5270000 101 Non-federal
19EN88 580000 5280000 2852 Non-federal
19EN89 580000 5290000 9771 Non-federal
19EN98 590000 5280000 827 Non-federal
19EN99 590000 5290000 8570 Non-federal
19EP40 540000 5300000 35 Non-federal
19EP50 550000 5300000 5671 Non-federal
19EP60 560000 5300000 5105 Non-federal
19EP70 570000 5300000 5035 Non-federal
19EP80 580000 5300000 9890 Non-federal
19EP81 580000 5310000 1655 Non-federal
19EP90 590000 5300000 5387 Non-federal
19EP91 590000 5310000 7151 Non-federal
19FK74 670000 4940000 2842 Federal
19FK75 670000 4950000 1663 Federal
19FK84 680000 4940000 21 Non-federal
19FN09 600000 5290000 1351 Non-federal
19FN28 620000 5280000 2 Non-federal
19FN31 630000 5210000 68 Non-federal
19FN32 630000 5220000 316 Non-federal
19FN37 630000 5270000 54 Non-federal
19FN38 630000 5280000 7790 Non-federal
19FN41 640000 5210000 2483 Non-federal
19FN42 640000 5220000 4980 Non-federal
19FN53 650000 5230000 202 Non-federal
19FN54 650000 5240000 5055 Non-federal
19FN55 650000 5250000 5562 Non-federal
19FN56 650000 5260000 29 Non-federal
19FN61 660000 5210000 1878 Non-federal
19FN62 660000 5220000 5944 Non-federal
19FN63 660000 5230000 7057 Non-federal
19FN64 660000 5240000 9106 Non-federal
19FN65 660000 5250000 7537 Non-federal
19FN66 660000 5260000 8330 Non-federal
19FN67 660000 5270000 2961 Non-federal
19FN71 670000 5210000 5359 Non-federal
19FN72 670000 5220000 1000 Non-federal
19FN73 670000 5230000 1000 Non-federal
19FN74 670000 5240000 7806 Non-federal
19FN75 670000 5250000 30 Non-federal
19FN76 670000 5260000 719 Non-federal
19FN77 670000 5270000 402 Non-federal
19FN81 680000 5210000 2319 Non-federal
19FN82 680000 5220000 7247 Non-federal
19FN83 680000 5230000 1000 Non-federal
19FN84 680000 5240000 9983 Non-federal
19FN85 680000 5250000 2182 Non-federal
19FN86 680000 5260000 1038 Non-federal
19FN92 690000 5220000 1233 Non-federal
19FN93 690000 5230000 3905 Non-federal
19FN94 690000 5240000 2322 Non-federal
19FN95 690000 5250000 5931 Non-federal
19FN96 690000 5260000 6447 Non-federal
19FP00 600000 5300000 2076 Non-federal
19FP01 600000 5310000 4732 Non-federal
20LR13 310000 5030000 649 Non-federal
20LR14 310000 5040000 147 Non-federal
20LR23 320000 5030000 1984 Non-federal
20LR24 320000 5040000 2019 Non-federal

m The grid square ID is based on the standard UTM Military Grid Reference System, where the first two digits represent the UTM Zone, the following two letters indicate the 100 x 100 km standardized UTM grid, and the last two digits represent the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat unit. This unique alphanumeric code is based on the methodology used for the Breeding Bird Atlases of Canada (see more information on breeding bird atlases).

n The listed coordinates are a cartographic representation of where critical habitat can be found, presented as the southwest corner of the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat. The coordinates may not fall within critical habitat and are provided as a general location only.

o The area presented is the sum of the area of critical habitat units within the UTM grid square (rounded up to the nearest 1 ha). It is an approximation obtained by drawing a 5 km radius around each observation meeting the habitat occupancy criteria (section 7.1.1). The exact area of critical habitat may be significantly less depending on where the criteria for critical habitat are met (see section 7.1). Field verification is required to determine the precise area of critical habitat.

p Land tenure is provided as an approximation of the types of land ownership that exist at the critical habitat units and should be used for guidance purposes only. Accurate land tenure will require cross referencing critical habitat boundaries with surveyed land parcel information.

Table C-3. Description of the 10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grids and Critical Habitat Units for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Nova Scotia. Critical habitat refers to areas where the criteria set out in section 7.1 are met.
10 x 10 km Standardized UTM Grid Square IDq UTM Grid Square Coordinatesr
Easting
UTM Grid Square Coordinatesr
Northing
Critical Habitat Unit Area (ha)s Land Tenuret
20PS55 650000 5150000 1335 Non-federal
20PS56 650000 5160000 3562 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS57 650000 5170000 1769 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS58 650000 5180000 33 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS62 660000 5120000 13 Non-federal
20PS63 660000 5130000 3978 Non-federal
20PS64 660000 5140000 8656 Non-federal
20PS65 660000 5150000 6222 Non-federal
20PS66 660000 5160000 9308 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS67 660000 5170000 9156 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS68 660000 5180000 6192 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS72 670000 5120000 4147 Non-federal
20PS73 670000 5130000 7470 Non-federal
20PS74 670000 5140000 9925 Non-federal
20PS75 670000 5150000 9383 Non-federal
20PS76 670000 5160000 8674 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS77 670000 5170000 1814 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS78 670000 5180000 393 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS84 680000 5140000 2085 Non-federal
20PS85 680000 5150000 423 Non-federal
20PS86 680000 5160000 4671 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS87 680000 5170000 8139 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS88 680000 5180000 3440 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS89 680000 5190000 354 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS97 690000 5170000 3628 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS98 690000 5180000 7820 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PS99 690000 5190000 2631 Federal (Cape Breton Highlands National Park of Canada)
20PT80 680000 5200000 345 Non-federal
20PT90 690000 5200000 4305 Federal
20PT91 690000 5210000 905 Federal
20QT12 710000 5220000 4 Federal
20QT13 710000 5230000 502 Federal

q The grid square ID is based on the standard UTM Military Grid Reference System, where the first two digits represent the UTM Zone, the following two letters indicate the 100 x 100 km standardized UTM grid, and the last two digits represent the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat unit. This unique alphanumeric code is based on the methodology used for the Breeding Bird Atlases of Canada (see more information on breeding bird atlases).

r The listed coordinates are a cartographic representation of where critical habitat can be found, presented as the southwest corner of the 10 x 10 km standardized UTM grid containing all or a portion of the critical habitat. The coordinates may not fall within critical habitat and are provided as a general location only.

s The area presented is the sum of the area of critical habitat units within the UTM grid square (rounded up to the nearest 1 ha). It is an approximation obtained by drawing a 5 km radius around each observation meeting the habitat occupancy criteria (section 7.1.1). The exact area of critical habitat may be significantly less depending on where the criteria for critical habitat are met (see section 7.1). Field verification is required to determine the precise area of critical habitat.

t Land tenure is provided as an approximation of the types of land ownership that exist at the critical habitat units and should be used for guidance purposes only. Accurate land tenure will require cross referencing critical habitat boundaries with surveyed land parcel information.

Figure C-1. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Bas-Saint-Laurent, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C1 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C1

Figure C-1 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Bas-Saint-Laurent, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 4 UTM grid squares east of Rimouski.

Figure C-2. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Saguenay – Lac Saint-Jean, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C2 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C2

Figure C-2 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Saguenay – Lac Saint-Jean, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 22 UTM grid squares ranging north of the Fjord du Saguenay east from Saint-Ambroise to north-west of Sacré Coeur.

Figure C-3. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Capitale-Nationale, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C3 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C3

Figure C-3 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Capitale Nationale, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodologies set out in section 7.1.There are 68 UTM grid squares ranging west of the Saint-Lawrence River from Saint Simeon to Saint- Anne-de-Beaupré.

Figure C-4. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative regions of Estrie and Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C4 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C4

Figure C-4 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative regions of Estrie and Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 11 UTM grid squares east of Sainte-Claire ranging down to Lac Etchemin. There are 7 more UTM grid squares south of Saint-Martin ranging to northeast of Lac-Mégantic as well as 15 more UTM grid squares in the southwestern region by Lac-Mégantic. The last section squares consists of 3 UTM grid squares just south of Cowansville.

Figure C-5. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Côte-Nord, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C5 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C5

Figure C-5 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Côte-Nord, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 4 UTM grid squares located in the central region of Monts Groulx with 5 more UTM grid squares located south of the previously mentioned. There are 4 more UTM grid squares in the Réservoir Outardes Quatre region and 4 more UTM grid squares just northeast of the grids previously mentioned and south of Île René Levasseur.

Figure C-6. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Côte-Nord, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C6 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C6

Figure C-6 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Côte-Nord, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 4 UTM grid squares located in the region of the Mingan Archipelago National Park Reserve.

Figure C-7. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Gaspésie – Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C7 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C7

Figure C-7 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Gaspésie – Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 48 UTM grid squares that span across the Monts Notre-Dame region just east of Sainte-Félicité bordering the Saint-Lawrence River. There are 4 more UTM grid squares in the Monts Berry region.

Figure C-8. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Gaspésie – Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C8 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C8

Figure C-8 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Gaspésie – Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 5 UTM grid squares just north-east of Grande-Rivière with 4 more squares just north of those mentioned in between the Baie de Gaspé and Forillon National Park. There are 3 more UTM grid squares just north-west Forillon National Park.

Figure C-9. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Laurentides, Quebec. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C9 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C9

FigureC-9 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in the administrative region of Laurentides, Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 15 UTM grid squares that range within the region of Parc National du Mont Tremblant until Labelle. There are 4 more grid squares west of Femme-Neuve and north of Mont-Laurier.

Figure C-10. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in northern New Brunswick. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C10 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C10

Figure C-10 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in northern New Brunswick and part of Quebec using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 33 UTM grid squares expanding from the region of Mount Carleton Provincial Park. There are 3 more UTM grid near Kedgwick, NB and 28 more grid squares which range across the borders of Quebec and New Brunswick just north of Edmundston to just west of Kedgwick.

Figure C-11. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in southern New Brunswick. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C11 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C11

Figure C-11 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in southern New Brunswick using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 3 UTM grid squares in the region of Manan. There are 4 more UTM grid squares east of the south-most point of the Kensington Peninsula.

Figure C-12. Critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Nova Scotia. Critical habitat is represented by the shaded yellow polygon (unit), where the critical habitat identification criteria and method set out in section 7.1 are met. The 10 x 10 km UTM grid overlay (in red) is a standardized national grid system that indicates the general geographic location of the critical habitat.
Map of C12 (see long description below)
Long description for Figure C12

Figure C-12 shows the critical habitat for the Bicknell’s Thrush in Nova Scotia using 10 km x 10 km standardized grid overlay. The critical habitat is in accordance with the criteria and methodology set out in section 7.1. There are 35 UTM grid squares that encompass the majority of Cape Breton Island and span up to the Cape Breton highlands including 7 grid squares reaching into the Cabot Strait waters.

Appendix D: Effects on the environment and other species

A strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is conducted on all SARA recovery planning documents, in accordance with the Cabinet Directive on the Environmental Assessment of Policy, Plan and Program Proposals. The purpose of a SEA is to incorporate environmental considerations into the development of public policies, plans and program proposals to support environmentally sound decision-making and to evaluate whether the outcomes of a recovery planning document could affect any component of the environment or any of the Federal Sustainable Development Strategy’s (FSDS) goals and targets.

Recovery planning is intended to benefit species at risk and biodiversity in general. However, it is recognized that strategies may also inadvertently lead to environmental effects beyond the intended benefits. The planning process based on national guidelines directly incorporates consideration of all environmental effects, with a particular focus on possible impacts on non-target species or habitats. The results of the SEA are incorporated directly into the strategy itself, but are also summarized below in this statement.

The broad recovery strategies proposed for the Bicknell’s Thrush could also benefit other bird species that breed in habitats similar to those used by the Bicknell’s Thrush and that are likewise at risk in Canada, including the Olive-sided Flycatcher (Contopus cooperi), Canada Warbler (Cardellina canadensis) and Barrow’s Goldeneye (Bucephala islandica). In addition, the conservation measures taken for the Bicknell’s Thrush in its wintering area will benefit a number of other bird species at risk (as per the IUCN criteria) that are present in the wintering area: the Black-capped Petrel (Pterodroma hasitata) (endangered), Plain Pigeon (Patagioenas inornata) (near threatened), White-fronted Quail-dove (Geotrygon leucometopia) (vulnerable), Hispaniolan Parakeet (Aratinga chloroptera) (vulnerable), Hispaniolan Amazon (Amazona ventralis) (vulnerable), Hispaniolan Trogon (Priotelus roseigaster) (near threatened), La Selle Thrush (Turdus swalesi) (endangered), White-winged Warbler (Xenoligea montana) (vulnerable), Gray-crowned Palm Tanager (Phaenicophilus poliocephalus) (near threatened), Eastern Chat-tanager (Calyptophilus frugivorus) (vulnerable), Western Chat-tanager (Calyptophilus tertius) (vulnerable), Hispaniolan Crossbill (Loxia megaplaga) (endangered), White-crowned Pigeon (Patagioenas leucocephala) (near threatened) and Cuban Solitaire (Myadestes elisabeth) (near threatened) (IBTCG 2010).

Mammals that use habitats near those of the Bicknell’s Thrush include the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), Gaspésie-Atlantic population (endangered) and the Woodland Caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou), boreal population (threatened). The recovery measures developed for the Bicknell’s Thrush will also be beneficial for them.

Another important broad strategy for recovery presented in this recovery strategy involves the conservation, stewardship and management of known and potential Bicknell’s Thrush wintering habitats (which are outside of Canada). In addition, the restoration of these habitats, which now cover only a fraction of the area historically covered, will likely benefit the overall biodiversity of this region. It is therefore reasonable to think that this recovery strategy will not result in significant adverse effects on the environment or other species in the Bicknell’s Thrush wintering area.

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